cows, as the hours arrive for feeding them, each going directly to the cow which suckles it.

2282. When they are tied by the neck in stalls, erected for the purpose against the wall of the byre, immediately behind the cows, they are loosened from their bindings, and pass across the byre to the

COWS.

2283. Generally, in both cases, one cow suckles two calves; and a cow that has calved early may suckle two sets, or four calves, or at least three, in the season.

2284. As regards the merit of these plans, I must say that I am averse to tying calves by the neck. It cramps their motions, and deprives them of that freedom of action which is so conducive to health and growth. By preventing motion, they will no doubt sooner acquire condition; but for stock calves, this is of less importance than strength acquired by moderate exercise within a limited space, such as in a crib. As to having a number of calves within the same crib, though they certainly have liberty to move, they have also liberty to suck one another. The ears, navel, scrotum, and teats, suffer by this dirty habit; and there is no preventing it after it has been acquired, as long as two calves remain together. Upon the whole, I prefer the separate crib to each calf, so formed of spars as to allow every calf to see its neighbours, and they are then as much in company as to remove the idea of loneliness. The separation, at all events, prevents the abominable habit of sucking being acquired; and such cribs are as useful when the calves are suckled by the cows as when brought up by hand.

2285. In regard to bringing up calves by suckling, there is no question it is the best way, provided the calf has free access to the cow which is supporting it; but I am doubtful of the superiority of suckling over feeding by hand, when the calf is only allowed to go to the cow at stated times. It saves the trouble of milking the cows and giving the milk to the calves; but a saving of trouble is of no importance compared to rearing young stock well. An objection to suckling exists, when one cow brings up two calves at a time, that the quantity of

milk received by each calf is unknown, and the fastest sucker will have the larger share. True, they are both brought up; but are they brought up as well as when the quantity of milk consumed by them is known to be sufficient for their support? The milk becomes scarcer, too, as the calves get older, instead of becoming more plentiful. The objection to partial suckling is, that a cow suckling a calf does not allow milking afterwards with the hand in a kindly manner, as every cow prefers being sucked to being milked by the hand. Unless, therefore, cows are kept for the purpose of suckling entirely, they become troublesome to milk with the hand after the calves are weaned.

2286. At a month old, the male calves that are not intended to be kept for bulls are castrated. Though the operation is simple and safe, it should not be performed at a time when any inflammation affects the navel-string, or symptoms of costiveness or dysentery are present. Supposing the calf to be in good health, the castration is performed in this manner. An assistant places the calf upon its rump on the litter, and, sitting down himself, takes it between his outstretched limbs on the ground, with its back at the shoulder against his breast. Then seizing a hind hock of the calf in each hand, he draws up a hind leg to each side of its body, and holds both in that position as firmly as he can. The operator causes the testicles keep the scrotum smooth and full with his left hand, and cuts with a sharp knife through all the integuments till the testical is laid bare, which he seizes with the right hand, and pulls out as much of the spermatic cord as he can, and divides it with the knife. The same operation he performs on the other testicle, and the entire castration is accomplished in a minute or two. The calf is laid down on the litter, and he will feel stiff in the hind quarters for a few days, and the scrotum may even swell. Should the swelling become serious, fomentations of warm water should be frequently applied; and should suppuration ensue, the incisions in the scrotum should be opened out to give the matter vent; but the probability is, that the cuts will heal by the first intention, and give no further uneasiness to the calf than a stiffness in the hind quarters for a few days.

2287. The practice some time ago was to spay the heifer calves-that is, to make an opening in the flank, through which the ovaries of the womb were extracted, in order to extinguish all desire for the bull; but the operation is falling into desuetude, most probably from the circumstance of every breed of cattle being now so much improved, that the heifers are generally considered fit for breeding, and are therefore kept open, as the phrase is, and disposed of at a better price than when

fattened for the butcher.

2288. When the air becomes mild as the season advances, and as the older calves attain the age of two months, they should be put into the court k, Plate II. during the day; and, after some days' endurance to the air, should be sheltered under the shed at night, instead of being again put into the cribs. Sweet hay should be of fered them in the racks; as well as a few slices of Swedish turnips in the mangers in the shed. The change of food may cause costiveness in some calves, and looseness in others; but no harm will arise from either, if remedial measures are employed in time. Large lumps of chalk to lick at will be serviceable in looseness. Should the weather prove wet, snowy, stormy, or cold, they should be brought back to their cribs till the storm pass away.

2289. At 3 or 4 months old, according to the supply of milk and the ready state of the grass to receive them, the calves should be weaned in the order of seniority, due regard being had to their individual strength. If a calf has been always strong and healthy, it may be the sooner weaned from milk when the grass is in a state to support it; but should it have ailed, or be naturally puny, it should still have good sweet milk as the best means to recruit its debility. When determined on weaning, calves should not be deprived of milk all at once; the quantity should be lessened daily, and given at longer intervals, so that it may be withdrawn insensibly. Calves, on being stinted of milk preparatory to weaning, are supplied with a sufficient quantity of other food than milk, and it is given so as to entice them to take it. Fresh bundles of the most clovery portions of the hay, turnips fresh sliced, fresh carrots, pure water at will, a little pounded oil

cake, presented in turns when they used to get their milk, will be eaten for the sake of novelty; but if these, or any of them, are given anyhow to save trouble, and are left to be picked up in a court, or bare lea, the calves cannot but suffer from hunger, nor is it surprising they should make their hunger be loudly known. Thus treated, they will inevitably fall off in condition; and if they do this at the critical period of weaning, the greater part of the ensuing summer will elapse ere they regain the condition, strength, and sleekness of coat, they had when on the milk. A small sheltered paddock, in good heart, near the steading, is an excellent place for weaning calves, before turning them out to a pasture field; but unless it afford a full bite of grass, to support them as the milk is taken from them, they will be as much injured in it as in a poor grass field.

2290. When bull calves are brought up, they should be early calved, and receive as much new milk as they can drink, and should not be weaned till the grass is fully ready to support them. The object of this high keeping is not to fatten them, though it may do that too, but to give strength to their bones, and vigour to their constitution, these being much enhanced by the quality and quantity of food at the earliest period of existence. The impulse thus given in calfhood, is evinced by bulls in the vigour of succeeding life, and it is sure to lay the foundation of a long and useful service. Even with ordinary calves, if they are pushed forward in the first month of their existence, the probability is they will evade every disease incident to that age.

2291. I should mention that, when they receive milk in the court, some will be apt to plague those which are getting theirs, by poking their heads into the same pail, by boxing, or by sucking the ears, &c. To prevent these annoyances, the dairymaid should be provided with a supple cane or switch, and tap the ears of every one disposed to be troublesome. while it does no harm to those subjected to it, impresses on others the necessity of obedience. We err if we consider animals, because they are dumb and young, incapable of instruction of any kind. On the

Discipline,

contrary, they are very susceptible of it, and its influence is evinced by habitual forbearance from wrong.

2292. On carse farms no calves are brought up, those produced by the cows which supply the people with milk being sold to rearers of stock, or fattened for the butcher. On pastoral farms, devoted to sheep, the same plan is usually pursued; but on those which rear cattle only, as on the west coast of Scotland, in Wales, and in Ireland, the calves are suckled by the mothers, and entirely brought up by them-which, as I have already said, is an excellent plan, provided the mothers are well fed, and make their calves follow them over the pastures, and then they will become strong, and be free of disease. On dairy farms calves are not brought up, excepting as many of the quey calves as shall be required to renovate the stock of cows, the milk being appropriated to quite other purposes; nevertheless, it is in the dairy districts that the calves are best fattened for the butcher.

2293. Strathaven in Scotland has long been famed for rearing good real for the Glasgow and Edinburgh markets. The dairy farmers there retain the quey calves for maintaining the number of the cows, while they feed the male calves for veal. Their plan is simple, and may be followed anywhere. Milk only is given to the calves, and very seldom with any admixture, and they are not allowed to suck the cows. Some give milk, but sparingly at first, to whet the appetite, and prevent surfeit. The youngest calves get the first drawn milk, or fore-broads, as it is termed, and the older the afterings, even of two or three cows, being the richest portion of the milk. After being three or four weeks old, they get abundance of milk twice a-day. They get plenty of dry litter, fresh air, moderate warmth, and are kept nearly in the dark to check sportiveness. They are not bled during the time they are fed, and a lump of chalk is placed within their reach. They are fed from 4 to 6 weeks, when they fetch from £3 to £4 a-piece; and it is found more profitable to fatten the larger number of calves for that time, to succeed each other, of from 25 lb. to 30 lb. per quarter, than to force a fewer number beyond the state of marketable veal.*

2294. The plan followed of fattening calves, for thirty miles round London, is very different. There, the cows are made to suckle the calves three times a-day for the first three or four days, and afterwards twice a-day. If the cow is full of milk, two calves are put to her; and, at any rate, one calf is put on after another is fattened off. In this way, the veal-farmers keep from 6 to 12 cows each, and convert their whole milk into veal. The calves are placed in boarded boxes, 4 feet high, and just large enough inside for a calf to turn. The floor is also boarded; the boards having holes, are raised from the ground, and littered with clean wheat-straw. A lump of

chalk is placed within reach of each calf. The calf is fed for 10 weeks, when it will attain about 35 lb. per quarter or more, and is then warranted prime veal. A calf, however, of 9 or 10 stones, will fetch a shilling or two a-stone more than one of 17 or 18 stones. Notwithstanding this, the English veal-farmers believe, contrary to those of Strathaven, that a calf grows and fattens faster after it is 10 weeks old than before, and requires less milk to carry it on; and the profit is greater, inasmuch as one large calf incurs only one prime cost, one risk of life, and one commission; whereas, two small calves incur twice the cost and risk of life. The butchers bleed the calves repeatedly before slaughtering them; and they judge of the colour of the flesh by looking at the inside of the mouth and white of the eyes. "The profit of fattening calves," observes Mr Main, “may be judged of by an example in figures, which I have oft experienced. A calf is suckled for 10 weeks, and weighs from 10 to 11 stones imperial, sinking the offal, as it is called in London. The calf fetches £5 at market, from which deducting 30s. which it might have been sold for when a week old, and 5s. salesman's commission, leaves a profit of £3, 5s, or 6s. 6d. per week for the cow's milk. Now, deducting 2s. 6d. per week for the keep of the cow, the bare profit left is only 4s. per week. But it must be remembered, that a good cow will fatten off two calves while she is in milk-some I have had,two and a half: but this can be but rarely accounted on. Still, taking one cow with another, kept for the purpose of suckling, her annual returns will be nearly what it is commonly estimated at, namely, £12. To insure this, or any other sum, as clear profit, depends entirely on the attention bestowed on the cows and calves. Some cows are odd-tempered, letting down their milk only to their own calves, and withholding it from those they are made to foster. This, if not corrected, will injure both cow and calf; the one will be starved, and the other will soon become dry."+

2295. Veal is generally considered a delicate species of meat, is held in high repute as a dish, and always fetches a higher price in the market than beef or mutton, being 9d. per lb. when beef is 6d. or 7d; and, being thus accounted delicate, it is a remarkable fact, that fresh fried veal takes so long as 4 hours to digest.

2296. Navel-ill.—On examination after the first drink is given to the calf, the navel-string may perhaps continue slowly to bleed. "In this case," advises Mr Youatt, "a ligature should be passed round it close, but, if it can be avoided, not quite close to the belly. Possibly the spot at which the division of the cord took place may be more than usually sore. A pledget of tow, well wetted with Friar's balsam, should be placed over it, confined with a bandage, and changed every morning and night; but the caustic applications that are so frequently resorted to should be avoided. Some times, when there has been previous bleeding, and especially if the caustic has been used to arrest the hemorrhage, and at other times

+ Ibid. p. 611.

the best. The astringent drink is made of starch, 2 oz., which is made as if for stiffening clothes, with 1 quart of warm water; to this add laudanum 1 drachm, ginger 14 drachm, and Japan earthoz. I ought to mention that these prescriptions are recommended by White for cows, that for calves being milder; but having tried the one for calves without success, I adopted those for cows, and succeeded-by only taking half the quantities of the ingredients prescribed, which was just the quantities given above. "An observation we have made, when treating of some other diseases," remarks White, "is equally applicable to this—that is, at an early period of the disorder, a cure may generally be effected by the treatment above described; but if neglected, and suffered to go on until the structure of the affected part is injured, medicine is but a useless expense.'

2299. Calf-louse.-It is not a little singular, in a physiological point of view, that there should be a peculiar pedicular parasite appropriated to the calf; yet such appears to be the case, although the creature is by no means common. It is very like the ox-louse, Hæmatopinus eurysternus, fig. 100, but comparatively narrower, and having two rows of dusky spots on the abdomen. It is termed Haematopinus vituli, or louse of the calf.+

2300. Mr Youatt gives a description of castrating bull-calves in France by means of torsion, termed bistournage. The effect of the torsion seems to be, that the testicles remain fixed against the abdomen, and gradually wither away. The animal is usually bled after the operation, and half of the allowance of food is only given; and it may be sent to pasture on the second or third day, if the weather is favourable. Although this mode of castration does not seem very painful to the animal, and is rarely attended by any dangerous results; yet we are informed of the state in which it leaves the ox, that "the animals that are thus emasculated are said to preserve more of the form of the bull than others from whom the testicles are excised: they also retain more of the natural desires of the bull, and are occasionally very troublesome among the cows."+

2301. It is improbable that the breeders of this country will follow a practice which will let loose such a horde of riglins amongst their herds; as they are already too well aware of the trouble which even a single riglin and chaser gives on a farm.

ON THE SOWING OF SPRING WHEAT.

2302. When wheat is sown in spring, it is usually after turnips, whether these have been entirely stripped from the land, or partly consumed on the ground by sheep. Whichever of these states of the turnip crop may be chosen to be followed * White's Farriery, vol. iv. p. 57-9.

by wheat, it is not merely sufficient to raise a good crop of turnips with a plentiful supply of manure for once upon an exhausted soil, to insure a good crop of spring wheat; the land should be, and should have been for some time, in good heart, otherwise the attempt will inevitably end in disappointment.

2303. Wheat cannot be sown in spring in every sort of weather, and upon every variety of soil. Unless the soil possesses a certain degree of firmness, arising from clay, it is not well adapted for the growth of wheat at least it is more profitable to sow barley upon it; and unless the weather is, besides, as dry as to allow strong soil to be ploughed in early spring, it is also more profitable to defer the wheat, and sow barley in the proper season. The general climate of a place affects the question of sowing wheat there in spring; and it seems a curious problem in climate why wheat sown in autumn should come to maturity at a place where spring wheat will not. Elevation of position, even in a favourable latitude, produces similar effects. Experience iu these well-known effects renders the farmers of Scotland chary of sowing wheat in spring, unless the soil is in excellent condition, and the weather very favourable for the purpose. But, under the most favourable circumstances, it has not been sown after the first week in March, until these few years, when a variety of wheat has been introduced into Scotland, named April wheat, because it may be sown as late as that month.