feering in the furrow-brow of the ridge. On passing up from a to b, the plough lays over the furrow-slice c d, and, the soil having been pulverised, it crumbles down in a round-topped narrow heap upon the firmer land under it. On gaining the head-ridge at the other end of the feering, the horses are hied, and the plough comes down the same furrow from b to a, laying over a similar furrow no upon the firm land, which of course assumes a similar form to c d. A similar feering is made in the furrow-brow of the 6th ridge from the last, and so on upon every 6th ridge across the field; but ere the field is all feered for drilling, some of the drills are begun to be formed between the feerings, that the operations may be proceeded with for which the land is drilled.

2388. To proceed, then, with the drilling at the first feering: a distance of 30 inches, previously determined on as the width of the drill, is measured off from a to e, and this the ploughman does with his ploughstaff, fig. 5, upon which the different breadths of drills executed on the farm should be notched off. The plough then proceeds from e to f, preserving a parallelism with the feered furrow a b, laying over the furrow-slice g h upon the firm ground, upon which it crumbles down as did the former furrow cd. On hieing the horses at the other end of the drills, a similar distance of 30 inches is marked off from b to i, the plough passes down from i to t, laying over the furrow-slicem

upon the firm ground. Hieing the horses again, the plough goes up by p, forming another drill like the others, and comes back by r, forming another drill. The ploughman does not measure off the width of every drill he makes in this manner, his eye being able to keep him right for a number of drills, across which he then lays his plough-staff, to ascertain how he is proceeding, whether the drills are too narrow, or too wide, and then again proceeds with the work. It will be observed, from this description, that since the making of the feering in the furrow ab, one drill is formed every time the plough goes up in the direction of ef, and another in coming down in that of it. In this way the horses hie round the feering a b, and the plough makes 2 drills every bout till 2 ridges on each side of the feering a bare drilled up, and the last drill is made close beside the fence.

2389. When this takes place, the ploughman goes to the next feering, where he finds two furrows split out for him as at a b, and he forms drills around it in the same manner, till 2 ridges on each side are also drilled. Two ridges having thus been drilled to the right and left of the first feering, and two to the right and left of the second, and as six ridges intervene between the feerings, two ridges of the six have yet to be drilled, upon which the drills are formed by hupping the horses from the first set of drills to the second, still turning the furrow-slices upon

and towards the firm ground. But, in doing this, caution is requisite to make these latter drills of the exact width of 30 inches, that the last formed one, into the open furrow at the junction of the two feerings, shall just be no more, and no less, than the 30 inches in width. The caution is exercised by the ploughman applying his plough-staff frequently to ascertain the breadth of the ground to be drilled, as well as the width of the drills themselves; and should he find that he has more or less ground than he should have for the number of drills he has yet to make, he must modify the width of each drill, so far as that the whole number may be as near the width as possible, and not put any surplus or deficient ground entirely to the last drill. Another caution, of no less importance, is to ascertain if the ground for the last drills is of equal breadth at both ends at the head-ridges; for, if this particular is not attended to, the last drill may run out to a point at one headridge, and be too broad at the other. In closing every feering, therefore, the greatest caution is required to preserve the exact breadth of the drills throughout their entire lengths. This a skilled ploughman will execute with great accuracy.

2390. This is one way of forming single drills, and the following is another: Instead of splitting out the feering a b, fig. 213, as just described, the ploughman lays the two furrow-slices together, and forms a finished drill on the line of feering, in place of a hollow furrow; and this he does by hupping the horses instead of hieing them, as in the former case. Still hupping the horses, and measuring off the width of the drill as formerly, the next drill is made in the direction of fe, by laying the furrowslice towards the drill made upon the line of feering, the outer edge of the furrowslice sending its crumbled earth to the edge of the plough track, left in making the drill in the feering. The next drill is made in the direction of ti, again laying the furrow-slice towards the plough-track. in forming the previous drill. The drills are 'thus formed around the first feering over the 2 ridges on each side, then over the 2 ridges on each side of the second feering, by hupping the horses; and the space of the 2 ridges between them is closed with drills, accompanied with the precau

VOL. I.

tions noticed above, and by hieing the horses.

2391. The distinctive difference betwixt the two methods is, that the one is the exact opposite of the other. In the first, the furrow-slices are laid over from the feerings towards the unploughed land, and the horses are first hied, and then hupped when closing the two feerings. In the second method, the furrow-slices are laid over towards the feerings and the ploughed land, and the horses are first hupped, and then hied on closing the two feerings. The treatment of the horses may be regarded as alike in both cases; but the land is differently treated. In the second method, the furrow-slice being laid over towards the open track left by the plough in making the previous drill, should the land be at all cloddy, when it is strong, or stony when it is light-the clods and stones will roll down the crumbling furrow-slice, and, having acquired an impetus by the action of the ear of the mould-board, find their way into the hollows between the drills; and this is actually found to be the case. When the width of the drills is as much as 30 inches, this inconvenience is less likely to happen than when it is 27 inches, when I have seen it occur to a considerable degree. The immediate inconvenience occasioned by the clods and stones is, the interruption they give to the progress of the bean-barrow when the land is drilled for the bean-crop; and as they occupy the best part of the drill, where the dung is deposited, they are covered up with the dung, remain amongst it, and form obstructions to the roots of plants which push themselves into the manure in search of nourishment. At all events, they do no good there.

2392. In the first method, this inconvenience and every other are entirely avoided. No clods and stones can roll into the furrow when the land, in making the drills, is laid over upon the firm ground; and the next passage of the plough not only sweeps away every clod and stone, but leaves a small stripe of clean ground between the former furrow-slice and its own track, as between t and o, &c., fig. 213, and which track is thus left clear and open, ready for the bean-barrow, or the dung that may be deposited in it. These advantages are

2 N

so obvious that no argument in support of them seems necessary; and they warrant the adoption of the method as an invariable practice.

2393. When the ground is flat-that is, when the ridges are not remarkably prominent-the drills are made the common width of 27 inches-some persons make them 28 inches and their feering is conducted in the same way; but in setting off breaks of feering, when there are no ridges to measure the proper distances, care is requisite to make the breadth of the feering such as to contain a determinate number of drills of the fixed width, otherwise an error will inevitably occur at the closings of the feerings. Thus, if the drills are 27 inches in width, in a feering of 30 yards broad, 6 ridges of 15 feet, which is a very convenient breadth of feering, the number of drills will be exactly 40.

2394. For making double drills, the feering is made in a different manner from that for making the single. Suppose, again, that the ridges are visibly marked in the ground, the first feering is taken on the furrow-brow of the ridge nearest the fence, at 15 inches from its open furrow space, and, setting up a straight line of poles, split out the feering by ploughing up and down in the same furrow. Suppose this furrow to be represented by the line cf in fig. 19, then set up a squaretable at d, and mark off therefrom a line with poles at right angles in the direction of the arrow through s to t. Removing the square-table to g, set off a similar and parallel line in the direction of the other arrow through u to v. Split out these lines with the plough lightly, as straight as the ploughman can, and the bottom of the furrows will form a guide to set off the exact breadth of the feering at right angles to the first feering.

2395. Ploughmen expert at drilling are apt to contemn such guides in forming double drills, because they conceive they can preserve the widths sufficiently well by the eye. And, no doubt, ploughmen are to be found who drill with precision, and I have met with such, though very few in number; but the generality of them cannot be intrusted to drill without a guide of some sort, and there is none more simple

and effectual than the one I have described and recommended; and where single drilling is to be executed on land on which no ridge is visible, it is impossible for the most expert driller to set off the feerings with sufficient accuracy. Ploughmen, I know, try to do it, and I have seen good ones nearly succeed in it, but never witnessed one who was not obliged to modify the width of the drills at the closings, when he had no such guide as the above.

2396. Strict accuracy in regard to drills is not required in some crops, such as in the bean and potato; but with regard to the turnip, which is sown with a machine set to a given width, unless the drills are very nearly alike in breadth at both ends, the sowing must be imperfectly performed. The means of attaining accuracy being so simple-merely drawing two or three furrows across the field-it is culpable to neglect them. There will be, I am certain, more time spent by the ploughman in measuring the width of the drills with his plough-staff, at every closing over a field, than he would spend in drawing a few cross-furrows at first; and, after all the adjustments, his mind is not entirely satisfied of the accuracy of the work. Nay, with all the assistance cross-furrows can afford him, he will still have to measure the widths of the drills with his ploughstaff at every closing; but he is much less likely to err in the measurements, while having the cross-furrows certainly to guide him at right angles to the direction of the drills, than in measuring them at a supposed right angle. This is so self-evident that the most obstinate ploughman must allow that the cross-furrows afford much assistance.

2397. The double drills are formed in this way; and first on the supposition that the ridges are visible at 15 feet asunder. After the furrow-slice c d, fig. 213, is laid over at the feering of a b along the nighside furrow-brow of the ridge nearest the fence, as directed above, the horses are hupped, and the plough is made to come down at the prescribed width of drill of 30 inches, along the line fe, and to put a furrow-slice against the feering furrow-slice cd, in doing which the drill receives a somewhat sharp-pointed crest. At 30 inches this crest is never very sharp, but

at 27 inches it may be made as sharp as you please, by making the plough go a little deeper. Then, hieing the horses, the plough again goes along ef, at 30 inches from cd, and lays over the large furrow-slice g h on the firm ground. Hupping again, the horses come down p, and lay a small furrow-slice to complete the drill hg; and so on, one drill after another. No breaks of feerings are required in this mode of drilling, as every drill is finished as it is formed; and the precautions required are, that the proper widths of the drills are preserved throughout their lengths, in which they may be easily checked by the assistance of the cross-furrows. This method of double-drilling is analogous to the first mode of single-drilling, (2388,) which lays the furrow-slice towards the unploughed ground.

2398. The other mode of double-drilling is analogous to the second mode of singledrilling (2390.) After the feering-poles are set up, as in the former case, the ploughing is commenced from the other headridge, and the first furrow-slice n o is laid over while coming down ba. The horses are then hied, and the plough is passed up the same furrow in the opposite direction a b, and, having little earth to lay over, only a small furrow-slice is laid towards c d. Hupping the horses, the plough is then brought down fe, which being a fresh furrow, the furrow-slice dc is large, and completes the drill d c. Hieing the horses, the plough again passes along the last furrow in the opposite direction ef, and, having little earth to take, lays over the small furrow-slice towards g h; and then hupping again, a large furrow-slice is laid over from p, and completes the drill h g, and so on, one drill after another, at the requisite width.

2399. The same difference exists in the two modes of making these double drills, as in making the single. Thus, in the first method, the large furrow-slice is laid over upon the firm ground, and the drill is finished by the second and smaller furrow-slice; whereas, in the second method, the smaller furrow-slice is first formed, and the larger one is laid towards the already drilled land, and upon the smaller furrow-slice which was first turned

over.

2400. On considering carefully both modes of drilling, it will be observed that the two sides of a double drill cannot be equal. The side which receives the furrowslice raised from the firm land receives a larger quantity of earth than the one which receives the small furrow-slice derived from the same, though rather wider track, out of which the former large slice had been taken. The immediate consequence of this inequality of earth upon the two sides of a drill is to give it the form of an unequal triangle, and its effect on the growth of any seed deposited within the drill, is to cause the germ of the plant to grow out at the upper part of the side, between the meeting of the two furrow-slices, instead of the top of the drill. This effect is palpably shown by the sloping direction in which a strong stem of beans or potatoes pushes itself out of the drill; and, to obviate any deformity in the future growth of these plants, the tops of the drills are lowered by harrowing as much as to allow the stems to grow upright.

2401. The inconvenience of the unequal form of the double drill attends both modes of making them, but, of the two, the one which lays the large furrow-slice upon the open land possesses two advantages over the other: the first, that no clods, large or small, can roll from the top of the drill into the hollow; and the other, that the finished drills are less trampled by the horses in making the succeeding drills. This last circumstance may be explained by referring to fig. 213. When the plough, for instance, goes up ef to commence a new drill, it cuts the firm ground along that line, laying the furrow-slice g h upon the firm ground on the right, and leaving on the left a small space of firm ground ce and df, between the line of the plough fe and the crumblings of the previous large furrow or unfinished drill c d. In doing this, the furrow-horse walks up the hollow of the former made drill a b to guide him in the exact line he should go, and the other goes up on the firm ground by the side of ef. On returning, the furrow-horse comes down ef, while the other comes by p, while the plough is making up the small side of the drill dc; and in doing this the footsteps of the horse that went up the finished drill a b are left

untouched. This may be considered by some a matter of little importance, as, from the generality of the practice in parts of the country, it seems to be regarded of little importance; and in the case of some horses which walk neatly and narrowly in a drill, the impressions of their footsteps may be almost unobserved in its bottom; but in the case of a horse which walks wide behind, and of all weak horses which stagger under their draught, both sides of the drills are much trampled; and, in strong land, the foot-prints injure the soil by holding water.

2402. The foot-marks may be obliterated in this way: Instead of perfecting the drills one by one in succession, let an intermediate drill remain unfinished between the one that is finishing, and the other that is forming. For example: Instead of 'finishing the second side of the drill h g by returning down the hollow fe, let the drill remain unfinished until the new drill p is formed so far as to lay over its first furrow on the firm ground. Then let the plough come down b a, having the furrow-horse before it, and it will obliterate its footmarks, and let the other horse come down the new-formed furrow p. There is another advantage attending this mode that one of the horses goes in a hollow of a drill formerly made to guide it in the proper line of the drill. With regard to the mode which lays the large furrow-slice towards the drilled land, it seems impossible but to leave the finished drills trampled. For example: When the plough comes down fe to lay over the large furrow towards, and to finish the drill c d, the furrow-horse comes down b a, and the other upon the firm land by fe; and again, when the plough passes up ef, to lay the small furrow-slice towards g h, the furrow-horse passes up a b, and leaves it trampled.

2403. When the ground is quite flat, double drills may be made 27 inches wide, and the same width may be adopted when ridges of 18 feet are visible. A feering of 6 ridges of 18 feet exactly includes 64 drills of 27 inches, so that where drills are desired at 27 inches in width, the land should either be in 18-feet ridges, if ridged, or it should be flat, otherwise 27inch drills on 15-feet ridges will place

some of them in the open furrow, which, in strong land, cannot fail to prove injurious to the turnips on them in winter. When the soil is thorough-drained, it is of no importance where the drills are situated; but, until that operation is performed, it is necessary to attend to the safety of the crop, which is done by avoiding having drills in the open furrow on strong undrained land.

2404. It may have occurred to you to inquire, that if a perfect drill cannot be formed by a bout of the common plough, why should it not be formed by one landing with a double mould-board plough? The inquiry is a natural one, and can receive a satisfactory answer. Were a drill perfectly formed, its vertical section would give a triangle whose height is equal to half the length of the base. The height to which a common plough can elevate the crest of a drill is that of the ear of its mould-board, which, in Small's plough, fig. 2, is 12 inches; and this height conforms to a drill of only 24 inches in width as regards the depth it can go. Such a plough, therefore, to make a drill of the usual width of 27 inches, will either leave a flat space on its top of 3 inches in breadth, or it will leave a tiny sharp-crested drill of 3 inches in breadth at the bottom of the hollow of the drill. A common plough varies in width, from the ear of the mouldboard to the landside, from 18 inches (Wilkie's) to 20 inches (Small's.) A bout of Wilkie's plough could thus, apparently, make a drill 36 inches, and that of Small's 40 inches in width in a bout, were it ploughed to the full breadth either was capable of; but the plough cannot lay over two furrows in breadth equal to twice its own width, because the open track of the former furrow would not afford sufficient earth on the land side to resist the pressure of the plough, and not having which, it could not raise a second furrow equal to the first. The second furrow, therefore, must be taken by the plough nearer the side of a drill than in the middle of the hollow between two drills; and it is this expedient which gives every drill one sloping and one more perpendicular side.

2405. A double mould-board plough, constructed as it ordinarily is, would make drills as wide as are required; but when