its mould-boards are set to make 27-inch drills, it is found that they are too wide below to allow the plough to go as deep as to give the drills their proper elevation of 13 inches. But the mould-boards of the double mould-board plough have been so modified in construction as to allow the plough to go as deep as is requisite to form a proper drill, or rather to form two This halves of two drills at one landing. 2406. Where the double mould-board plough is employed for forming drills, the mould-board is made to fit the shield a, fig. 214; it then stretches away to a length of 2 feet 6 inches along the upper edge, Fig. 214. THE DOUBLE MOULD-BOARD PLOUGH FOR FORMING DRILLS. the point b being at a height varying from 11 to 14 inches above the sole-line. At this point the depth of the mould-board is only 6 inches, so that the lower edge runs off at a considerable elevation, and the surface having not more than 3 inches of twist, it is the lower edge only of the board that effects the purpose of laying up the earth to form the drill. 2407. The sock c should be doublefeathered, to take a firm hold of the ground. 2408. In working the plough, for the purpose of forming drills, there is frequently a marking-bar jointed to the beam immediately before the breast a; the bar folds to either side, and, having an adjustable double-edged scraper fitted to it, a rut is drawn on the surface at the proper distance for the centre of the next furrow. ON THE SOWING OF BEANS. 2409. The best season for sowing beans is February. The plant taking at least seven months to bring its seed to maturity, unless the seed is sown early, time will not be afforded the plant to arrive at maturity. A very favourable season, indeed, may hasten the plant through its course of vegetation in a shorter time; but an unfavourable one, on the other hand, may so retard that course, when even the seed had been sown in its proper season, as to prevent the formation of the seed altogether. Both effects are frequently experienced; and so much, as is well known, does the bean crop depend on the state of the weather, that it is no uncommon circumstance to raise a superabundant crop one season, whilst in the very next the crop may almost be an entire failure. No dependence, therefore, can be placed, in Scotland, on the result of the bean crop, and on that account it is not cultivated so extensively as it is entirely for the sake of the bean itself, as for that of a crop of excellent fodder from the straw, which is of itself valuable in every farm which rears live stock. Though the crop should fail as a seed-producing one, it never fails in the same season to produce good fodder. A dry season may stint the growth of the haulm, but will produce beans of fine quality, and a wet one may prevent the production of the seed, but will afford a large crop of fodder. 2410. Beans are raised most in accordance with their nature, and with most profit, on clay soils suited to the culture of wheat; and in these soils they may be raised without manure, provided they follow a manured crop or a single cereal crop. And they may also be raised on lighter soils, provided manure is directly applied for their special use. 2411. The portion of ground occupied by the bean crop is not arbitrarily chosen, but follows in a regular course of cropping, succeeding a cereal crop which is not laid down with grass. The ground, therefore, allotted to the bean crop was in stubble in autumn, and, the crop requiring early attention in spring, its ground in stubble would be ploughed early in winter, (774.) In England the bean, in some cases, is raised on lea, and succeeds, of course; but, in such a course of cropping, the bean is put in immediate comparison with the cereal crop which should have occupied the lea, and in a wet season it will stand the comparison very poorly as regards produce. 2412. The particular culture practised for raising beans is not dependent on the nature of the soil, but is meant to suit the nature of that plant's growth, and the state of the soil in reference to cleanliness. From the structure of the plant, which bears fruit-pods on its stem near the ground as well as at the top, it should have both light and air; and its leaves being nearer the top, and its stem comparatively bare, space is afforded near the ground for weeds to grow. The plant possessing these properties, unless the air is admitted below, and opportunity afforded for removing weeds, the crop will not be luxuriant, nor the land be cleaned. 2413. Now, one plan only exists by which both these objects can be secured, which is, to place the plants in rows or drills. The air will then reach both sides of every row; and if the rows are placed as far asunder as to allow the horse to work between them, the two objects of vigour to the plant, and cleanliness of the soil, will be attained. 2414. Beans were wont to be sown broad-cast; but though the plants had stood as far asunder as to afford them sufficient air, it was almost impracticable to destroy the weeds by hand-hoeing, at least those which grew after the beans were a little advanced. There are farmers in clay land districts who still sow beans broadcast, though their reason for persisting in the practice is not very obvious, even were the land quite clean-which it certainly is not, and never will be, under the broadcast culture. Be the reasons of the preference for sowing beans broadcast what they may, the practice is now limited compared to the drill-method. 2415. If you look at figs. 27 and 28, you will find that the winter-furrows given to land of strong character are cleaving down without and with gore-forrows. The gore-furrows keep the land dry all winter, and it is as good a device for the purpose as is known; and where beans are desired to be raised, the stubble-land would best be ploughed in autumn, with gorefurrows, fig. 28. Suppose, then, you find the land in spring cloven down with gorefurrows, the first operation is to harrow down the furrow-slices across the ridges, in doing which, the land being strong, and lying in a rough state, the harrows will take a firm hold of it, and tear it to pieces in a contrary direction from what it had been cut by the plough in autumn; and the immediate effect will be, the filling up of the open furrow b, fig. 28, and also of the gore-furrows a a: the surface of the land will, in fact, be nearly flat. If the land, however, has become very much consolidated in winter, by reason of snow or rain, and little frost, a cross-harrowing will have little effect. It might then be harrowed along the ridges, which may even prove of little service; and, in such cases, harrowing may altogether be dispensed with. When the land is pretty dry, early as the season is in February, it will harrow well if it has been ameliorated by frost; but should it not be so dry as to bear the horses without sinking, it had better be let alone for a few days, or even a week or two. Dry land and dry weather are both requisite for good harrowing; and in its turn harrowing exposes the land to drought. Every draught of horses should be put to the harrows, to get it done as quickly as possible. Perhaps one double tine will suffice altogether at all events, it should suffice for the first day; and should the weather continue dry, and the land require it, next day it should receive a second double harrowing in an opposite direction, when it will be in a much better state for receiving it after the short interval, than harrowing ever so often kind. at one time. 2416. For strong land a stronger harrow than the common one is employed in some quarters, called the brake-harrow, which is only an enlargement of the common implement, wherein every part is increased in size and weight, for the purpose of breaking down and pulverising rough and stubborn land. Brakes are made of various forms, such as rectangular, rhomboidal, and triangular; and every form has its advocates, the preference being given frequently to that which accident had thrown in the way of the experimenter; and, without taking measures to compare its effects with those of other forms, the implement is marked as the most perfect of its There appears no good reason for concluding that any one of the above forms is better than another, provided proper weight is put on the implement, and the tines be of proper length and number, and disposed in a manner that, with a duly applied draught, will make an equal distribution of its pulverising effects over the surface which it covers. The extended application of draining appears in a great measure to be superseding the brakeharrow. 2417. But when the land cannot be sufficiently impressed by the harrows, recourse should be had to the grubber, which is a much better implement, in every respect, than the brake-harrow. Fig. 215 is a view, in perspective, of Kirkwood's grubber, Fig. 215. KIRK WOOD'S GRUBBER. which I consider a good implement of its class, as well in the execution of the work done by it, as for the facility with which the tines are taken out and let down again into the soil. This grubber may be considered as consisting of two parts, the tine-frame, and the carriage with its wheels and handles, the two being connected by means of the apparatus for elevating the tine-frame, and by a joint-rod which is common to both, the whole being constructed of malleable iron, except the wheels. The tine-frame is a a; the muzzle a" is provided with several holes, in which the draught shackle and hook can be attached, to regulate in some degree the tendency to earth. The beam b b is bent upwards at a', above the frame a, for the purpose of receiving the bridle u u'. The tines, of which this form of the implement contains 7, hh, &c. are bent at the point as in the figure, with a slight tendency to earth, and are flattened out at the point; and they are secured at any required degree of earth by an iron wedge to each tine. 2418. The carriage consists of the axle dd, on which are mounted the two handles or levers c c. The levers are perforated for the joint-rod g, the position of which in the tine-frame is such as just to allow the extremities o to pass the axle when the frame is being raised or depressed. The levers extend backward, and terminate in sockets into which wooden helves are inserted. The carriage is supported on the hind-wheels ff; and the fore-part of the frame on the castor-wheel i, with its shears kl, and crank-lever I n. The connexions between the carriage and frame also form the elevating apparatus, by which the tine-frame is moved up and down in positions always parallel to the horizon. 2419. In working the machine, it is requisite that the conductor have it in his power to regulate and preserve a uniform depth for the tines, and to be able to withdraw the tines from the earth. To accomplish this part, the connecting-rod t has small mortices in it, to the number of 6 or 8, at very close intervals. A nut or slide-box y' is fitted to slide easily upon it; and it can be fixed at any point by dropping a pin through this and any required mortise. The bridle u u' consists of two similar parts. The handle vw is made of such length as will bring the eye w within reach of the conductor-but it can be shortened or lengthened at pleasure; and this is done to make the crosshead fall in behind the end of the connecting-rod when the tines are in the ground, which thus lock them that they cannot rise out of the ground, although, from any malformation of the tines, they might have a tendency to do so were this lock not applied. But while the tines preserve their due form, the lock is not required. A prolonged screw-nut at p is also put upon the handle; and when the tine-frame is raised out of the ground for travelling, the nut is adjusted to fall in before the checks of the stays at p, and thus keeps up the tine-frame without the continued aid of the conductor. 2420. Ducie's Grubber, or cultivator, the production of Earl Ducie, is based, in its construction, on the improved form of Finlayson's and of Kirkwood's grubbers. In this cultivator we have the high wheels raising the tine-frame to a height above the surface of the ground that must greatly prevent the choking of the tines in foul land, by the accumulation of roots about their neck; and this is further secured by the curvature which they possess. The castor-wheel in front, being double, is an improvement on the crank-lever and shears, and decidedly superior to them; and the apparatus for elevating the tineframe exhibits a fine mechanical taste, though the application and arrangement of the screw, the wheel and axle, and the levers to effect the purpose, is perhaps an example of too much elaboration for the particular case. 2421. Fig. 216 is a view in perspective of this implement. It consists of a frame a a, which carries five tines b b, &c., with Fig. 216. beautiful combination of parts. When the tine-frame is to be raised, the winchhaudle m is turned, by a sufficient number of revolutions of the screw ; and by reversing the motion of the winch-handle m, the frame is lowered-and these movements will be made with perfect accuracy, preserving to the tine-frame a correctly horizontal position at any height within the range of its lift. An index is attached to the main axle as seen at p, which is divided in the proportion of inches in depth of the penetration of the tines; but this is one of its least important points. 2422. The weight of the cast-iron grubbers may be averaged at 10 cwt., and their price at £15. 2423. The action of any of these grubbers in the soil is to stir it effectually as deep as their tines descend, and at the same time retain the surface soil in its existing position-an operation which bestows the softness of a ploughed surface, whilst it preserves the original upper surface dry, which the plough cannot do. This advantage is especially appreciated in early spring, when it is precarious to turn over the soil with the plough; and should rain follow, the land would be easily made much wetter, and worse to work with any succeeding implement, than if it had not been ploughed at all. 2424. Should the circumstances be unfavourable—that is, the time limited, the land raw and not very clean, and the weather precarious-the grubber will put the land into a state for harrowing, of which it should receive at least one double tine along the ridges, the grubbing having been given across them; and, should this not be sufficient to reduce the clod to a moderate size, another double tine should be given across the ridges, when the land will be ready to be ploughed for the seed. 2425. Should circumstances be in the most favourable state-that is, with plenty of time, with the soil suited to the crop, the land clean and dry, and the weather fair-instead of using the grubber, the land should be ploughed, and in the reverse order in which it had been ploughed in autumn. It should then be harrowed a double tine along the ridges, and a double tine across them, when it will be ready to be ploughed for the seed. 2426. In one of these two states the soil will be found in the spring; and after the above treatment, according to the state of the soil, the ploughing is conducted on the determination whether the land is to be manured or not, and whether the seed is to be sown in drills or broad-cast. 2427. If the seed is to be sown broadcast without manure, a ploughing is requisite in spring-a grubbing will not suffice-and the furrow should be the opposite of the one ploughed in autumn. 2428. If the seed is to be sown in rows on the flat, a ploughing is also requisite, and the furrow should also be the reverse of that ploughed in autumn. 2429. If to be sown in drills, each drill should be formed in the single way (2388,) when the land is nearly in a clean and tolerably friable state; but if somewhat foul and waxy, the drills should be formed double (2397.) 2430. If the seed is to be sown broadcast, with manure, the manure may be spread upon the stubble and ploughed in, in autumn, which will much expedite the labour in spring. In that case ploughing is requisite in spring, and the furrow should be the reverse of that given in autumn. The manure, however, can be applied in spring, and should be so upon the surface, formed by the ploughing in autumn, preceded by a double harrowing should the surface still be rough and cloddy, and after being ploughed the land will be ready for the seed. 2431. If the seed is to be sown in rows on the flat, the manure may be also conveniently spread upon the stubble and ploughed down in autumn; and the furrow given in spring should be in the reverse order it was ploughed in autumn, when the surface will be ready for the seed. 2432. Though the seed be sown in drills, the manure may still be spread broadcast upon the stubble, and ploughed down in autumn, and, on the land being |