SOWS.

2859. Both male and female pigs are gelded, the few that are kept for breeding forming but a small exception. They should be gelded on the milk at from 10 to 14 days old. The males are castrated on being held between the knees, and the scrotum cut through to each testicle, which is removed by the pressure of the finger and thumb, and the spermatic chord separated by the knife. The she-pigs are treated in a different manner. Being laid on a chair bottom or table, on its far side, the pig is there held by an assistant; the operator cuts an upright incision into the flank, of about 2 inches in length, and introducing a finger, brings out the ovary of the womb, and separates it by the knife. He then closes the incision by a stitch or two with a needle and thread, and the operation is finished. There is very little danger attending the operation to either sex. In the case of rupture or hernia in the male-and some breeds of pigs are very liable to this disease when young it is necessary to stitch up the incision of the scrotum, and the testicle at castration should, in such a case, be removed with care, in case of producing inflammation in the intestines. The incisions in both the male and female generally heal by the first intention. The gelder should use the precaution of cleaning his knife before every operation. The usual charge for gelding pigs is 2s. 6d. the litter, whatever number it may contain. Young pigs are not gelded when intended to be killed while on the milk.

2860. It is seldom that any complaint overtakes the sow on littering, though she may be carried off by puerperal fever, and I suspect there is no remedy for this disease in her case. The pigs which she leaves may be very well brought up by hand on cow's milk, as they will soon learn to drink out of a dish, in which the milk should be given to them warm from the cow, and as often, and even oftener, than the cows are milked. It is surprising how small a quantity of milk a pig will drink at a time, and on this account they should get it frequently; and the dish in which it is served

inevitably be a struggle which to get first at the milk, and one or more will be sure to jump into the dish. This practice should be checked.

2861. Pigs are very commonly weaned at 6 weeks old, but it is better to keep them on the sow for 2 months; though, in the latter case, she will require to be the better fed. Mr Youatt gives these instructions for weaning pigs:-" They should not be taken from the sow at once, but gradually weaned. At first, they should be removed from her for a few hours each day, and accustomed to be driven by hunger to eat from the trough; then they may be turned out for an hour without her, and afterwards shut up, while she is also turned out by herself. Subsequently, they must only be allowed to suck so often in the twenty-fours-perhaps six times at first, then four, then twice, and at last only once; and, meanwhile, they must be proportionally better and more plentifully fed, and the mother's diet in like manner diminished: thus will the weaning be accomplished without danger or evil consequences to either. Some persons have advised that the whole litter should not be weaned at once; we do not, however, agree with them, unless it should happen that one or two of the young ones are much weaker and smaller than the others. In such case, if the sow remains in tolerable condition, they might be allowed to suck for a week longer; but such a mode of proceeding should be an exception, not a general rule. But let it be understood that, while we would enforce the necessity of good and ample feeding, we highly deprecate all excess, and all stimulating, heating diet, such tending to vitiate the animal powers, often to lay the foundation of disease, and never to produce good, sound, well-flavoured flesh. A little sulphur mixed with the food, or a small quantity of Epsom or Glauber salts, dissolved in water, will frequently prove beneficial."

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2862. A sow is not allowed to take the boar until after the pigs are weaned, but as soon after as possible-in a week or two; and, to bring her into season the sooner, she

should be fed with oats or oat-meal until she take the boar. The symptoms of season in a sow are a redness and enlargement of the vulva, which, when observed, the boar should have access to her; and should there be a boar on the spot, the meeting will be easily accomplished, and one embrace, which is usually a protracted one, is quite sufficient for securing a litter of pigs. When there is no boar on the farm, the sow is sent to him in a cart, not driven on foot, and she remains a few days with him to secure her impregnation.

2863. A sow that can bring up 10 pigs, and has 5 such litters in the course of 2 years, is a profitable animal, and deserves to be well maintained and taken care of. Even at 10s. a-piece, which is the lowest sum a farmer should take for a pig-for he should keep it until it is worth that sum rather than part with it at a lower pricesuch a sow will return £25 in the course of 2 years.

2864. As it is considered by farmers inconvenient to keep beyond a certain number of pigs in the farm-stead, it is necessary to determine what that number should be; and as it is difficult to fix its amount for every particular case, a few hints on different modes of managing litters, after they are weaned, may prove useful. Before investigating this point, a few particulars may be stated which you may regard in the light of maxims on this subject. A sow should always be either with young or giving suck, for if allowed to run about in season- that is, seeking the boar-she will loose flesh instead of gaining it. A sow should always be kept in good condition, whether with young or supporting young, because a lean sow never brings forth or can nourish strong pigs. Every breeder and feeder of pigs will find it his advantage never to allow them to go to bed with a hungry belly. A sow that brings forth the largest number of pigs of the best quality, proves the best nurse, and is most careful of her young, should always be preferred as a brood-sow. When a sow gets old, she is apt to become careless of her pigs, so that after 3 or 4 years may be a proper time to feed off a brood-sow. Pigs, though on grass during the day in summer, should nevertheless receive a drink of water, and meal or potatoes, or of whey, every morning and evening.

2865. There are just two ways of rearing pigs on a farm: one is to have a large number of sows, and sell the pigs as they are weaned, at 6 or 8 weeks old; the other is, to have fewer sows, and rear the pigs until they are fit for the porkcurers-and the adoption of either plan depends on the nature of the market in the locality. If there is a demand for young pigs just weaned, the larger number of sows will be the most pro

fitable, because the pigs will not have to be maintained on food independently of their mothers; but it is one attended with much trouble, inasmuch as a large quantity of food will have to be daily cooked for the sows while supporting their young, and the market for pigs will be confined to those of one age.

2866. In the other plan, the sows are only supported on special food as long as they suckle the pigs, and there is choice not only of the market for weaned pigs, but for those of various ages, suited to the tastes of pork-curers. Suppose, then, that 2 sows are maintained, in pursuance of the latter plan, and that they bring forth 20 pigs twice a-year. Retaining 4 of these for ham, and other 2 for pickled pork, for the use of the farm-house, there will be 34 pigs to dispose of every year; and as these meet with a ready market when 4 or 5 stones each, at 6s. a-stone, will make them worth each from 24s. to 30s., or from L.40 to L.50 a-year for pigs. It should be borne in mind that these 34 pigs, when running about the courts in winter, eating a few turnips or potatoes, or grazing in the grass-field in summost desiderated by the curers of pork, and in mer, do not cost much to rear them to the weight their ordinary state they should be fat enough for the purpose, and will make wholesome meat.

2867. On a farm of 500 acres, 2 brood-sows could thus be easily maintained; on a larger farm 3 might be kept, and on a smaller 1 may suffice: but circumstances must regulate the proper number. Where dairy-husbandry is practised, more sows may easily be kept. A remark of Mr Henderson's on this subject is worthy of attention, in regard to the timing of sows in bearing their litters of pigs. "Whenever," he says, "farmers have an opportunity of selling pork at all seasons, they do not think it necessary to make the sows bring their litters at a particular season, as they wish to have a lot of a certain age to go off regularly at least every month," in autumn, winter, and spring. "They make them ready for the market, with little expense, only giving them close feeding 2 or 3 weeks previous to their being sold." Pigs intended for pickled pork merely do not require even this feeding, though those sold for making hams are the better for a little extra and hardening feeding. "They have very little trouble in selling them," concludes Mr Henderson, "as there are jobbers continually travelling through the country, purchasing swine of all descriptions, who receive them and pay the money at the farms."

2868. The omnivorous disposition of swine is well known, and it is this property which makes them so easily maintained, and serviceable on a farm. Swine, though exceedingly voracious," observes Mr Henderson, "will feed almost on anything. In miry and marshy ground they devour worms, frogs, fern, rush, and hedgeroots. In drier and woody countries they feed on haws, sloes, crabs, mast, chestnuts, acorns, &c., and on this food they will grow fleshy and fat. They are a kind of natural scavengers; will thrive on the trash of an orchard, the out

casts of the kitchen, the sweepings of barns and granaries, the offals of a market, and most richly on the refuse of a dairy. If near the sea, they will search the shores for shell-fish, in the fields they eat grass, and in great towns they are supported chiefly by grains. It is evident that the facility of feeding them everywhere at a small expense is a material benefit, more especially in a country where people are accustomed to eat flesh daily, or, on the other hand, where there is so ready a market for bacon and pork as we have. It is no less observable that, notwithstanding the facility of feeding, and the multitude of swine maintained, they seldom fail of coming to a good market. Swine ought to have hard feeding two or three weeks previous to their being killed, to give firmness to the flesh. This practice ought to be particularly attended to by those who feed at distilleries on burnt ale and grains, as the fat of pigs thus fed melts almost wholly away in boiling or roasting; peas and beans are excellent for the purpose, and acorns are still better. Where oak plantations are near, they will resort to them in autumn, and there remain until this their favourite food is exhausted. The late Sir James Colquhoun of Luss, I have been told, was in the habit of sending his pigs to one of the islands of Loch Lomond, where there is an oak plantation, that they might pick up the acorns, which is said to have given a surprising degree of delicacy to the flesh. Those who have woods of this kind, and orchards, ought to allow their pigs liberty to range among the trees, to pick up shaken fruit and seeds."* The hogs of Germany enjoy the droppings of the oak and chestnut forests, and it is supposed that it is this species of food that imparts the very superior flavour which the hams of Westphalia are known to possess. That all the hams sold in this country for Westphalian are genuine, I have doubts, after having become acquainted with their true flavour in their own country. I remember of passing through a forest of sweet chestnuts of about 3 miles in length, near Bellinzona, in the canton of Ticino, in Switzerland, in autumn, when the fruit was dropping from the trees; and into this forest the peasantry, I was informed, turned the pigs every year at that season to get fattened. Pigs are remarkably fond of the earth nut and the roots of the common and garden mint.

2869. Ringing.-Swine should not be allowed to enter a field of any kind without a ring in the nose. Their propensity to dig for worms and roots makes them turn up the soil with their noses, and when a grass-field is thus treated, it presents a scene of havoc. The best material for making the nose-jewels of swine is horseshoe nails, they being both durable and ductile. As the heads of the nails are of no use, they are hammered into a point. The nail is inserted into a hole, formed by an awl or other sharp-pointed instrument, through the supplemental or snout bone and the proper nasal, and its points are twisted firmly together. A new hole can be made and another nail substituted, when the old hole and nail have become worn. Mr Youatt says that it is a far better mode of proceeding,

VOL. I.

when the pig is young, to cut through the cartilaginous and ligamentous prolongations by which the supplementary bone is separated from the proper nasals. The divided edges of the cartilage will never unite again, and the snout always remains powerless.

2870. Pulse. The beating of the heart of a pig may be felt on the left side, whence also the pulse may be taken; or from the femoral artery, which crosses the inside of the thigh in an oblique direction. In swine in good health, the pulsations are from 70 to 80 in a minute.

2871. Bleeding.-" The common and vulgar mode of getting blood from the pig," observes Mr Youatt, "is by cutting off a portion of the ears or tail; but these modes of proceeding should only be had recourse to when local and instant blood-letting is requisite. The jugular veins of swine lie too deep, and are too much embedded in fat, to admit of their being raised by any ligature about the neck; it is therefore useless to attempt to puncture them-we would only be striking at random. Those veins, however, which run over the interior surface of the ear, and especially towards its outer edge, may be opened without much difficulty: if the ear is turned back on to the poll, one or more of them may easily be made sufficiently prominent to admit of its being punctured by pressing the fingers on the base of the ear near to the conch. When the necessary quantity of blood has been obtained, the finger may be raised, and it will cease to flow. The palate veins, which run on either side of the roof of the mouth, are also easily opened by making two incisions, one on each side of the palate, about half-way between the centre of the roof of the mouth and the teeth. The flow of blood may be easily stopped by means of a pledget of tow and a string, as in the horse." The plate vein, in the inside of the fore-leg, may be raised by a ligature tied firmly round the leg, just below the shoulder.

2872. Catching or holding.-Hurtel d'Arboval recommends the following means of getting hold of pigs: "Fasten a double cord to the end of a stick, and beneath the stick let there be a running nooze in this cord; tie a piece of bread to the cord and present it to the animal, and when he opens his mouth to seize the bait, catch the upper jaw in the noose, run it tight, and the animal is fast." Throw a sack or cloth over the head of the pig, and in his endeavours to get rid of it, seize him by the hind-leg. Mr Youatt says that, in the violent efforts usually employed to catch swine, their struggles to escape will often do them more mischief than the disease we seek to investigate or remedy would effect. Pigs in these struggles will rupture blood-vessels, which may cause instant death, or bring on inflammation and subsequent death.

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be done, the following is the best method of administering a drink :-" Let a man get the head of the animal firmly between his knees-without, however, pinching it-while another secures the hinder parts. Then let the first take hold of the pig's head from below, raise it a little, and incline it slightly towards the right-at the same time separating the lips on the left side, so as to form a hole into which the fluid may be gradually poured, not more being introduced into the mouth at a time than can be swallowed at once. Should the pig snort or choke, the head must be released for a few minutes, as he will be in danger of being strangled."

2874. Diarrhoea.-"It consists in a frequent discharge of the fæcal matter in a thin or slimy state, but not actually altered, and arises from inflammation or congestion of the mucus lining of the intestine. What we conceive to be an attack of diarrhoea is often only an effect of nature to throw off some offensive matters, and will close of itself in the course of twenty-four hours; but where it goes on for any length of time, it must be taken seriously in hand, as it will otherwise weaken the animal, and impair its value. The best remedy for it is the compound commonly called calves' cordial, viz.,—

mixed and dissolved in half a pint of peppermint water. From half an ounce to an ounce of this mixture, according to the size of the animal, should be given twice in the day; and strict attention paid to the diet, which should consist as much as possible of dry farinaceous food."

2875. Mr Youatt mentions in a note that "our friend and fellow-practitioner, Mr Horsefield of Wentworth, informs us that sucking pigs kept in piggeries having stone pavements are apt to have the white flux, a bowel complaint very prejudicial to their growth. To prevent or ease them of this malady, let there be plenty of fresh earth strewn for them in the inner piggery, which they will eat with avidity, and thus be kept clean and in good condition." There must be something else than the stone pavement connected with the production of this disease, for my brood-sows brought up their young ones in sties of no other construction, and I never saw a single instance of the disease referred to for all the years I farmed.

2876. Fecundity of Swine.-" In one year two sows will breed ten each, of which we shall assume that one half are females, and so proceed on that assumed equality :

The first year there will be males and females,

From which take the males,

And we have the result as breeders, At the second year then, we may fairly take the same ratio of time to each,

20

10

2919

10

10

And it gives a hundred males and females, 2) 100

I hope my friend has brought his pigs to a good market; but to equalise the supply, I shall for the present purpose take only the male half of the pig population for food, leaving the breeders to go on. In this way we can kill and eat 10 the first year no bad increase from two sows recollect; the second year 50; the third year 250; the fourth year 1250; the fifth year 6,250; the sixth year 31,250, pork in abundance now; the seventh year 156,250-still more abundant; the eighth year 781,250; the ninth year 3,906,250 ; and the tenth year, also decided in like manner, the enormous number of 19,531,250 for food, without interfering with the breeders.

I shall close this paper with the sensible practical observations of my friend in reference to this subject, as, after all, it is in practice only that the benefits open to all are to be received by any. In the county of Kent he informs us there are 31,000 agricultural families or farmers. It is a very easy matter for each to keep two breeding sows, which in three years would produce, in round numbers, 15,000,000 of pigs. In the 52 counties of England, he also adds, the number of agricultural families is 760,000; so that, by the same mode of calculation as for Kent, of every farmer keeping two sows, the produce would be in the like period, 380,000,000 pigs. One good breeding sow to each would consequently produce 15,000,000. As I have said, and say again, is this all true? for if so, what prevents the immediate use of the same bene