In the critical and philological notes every available help has been consulted. In the part containing the revised version with explanatory notes, the writer has not drawn from commentaries already before the public; preferring that his work should be a contribution. to the subject, rather than repeat what others have written. His own observation of life, and reflection upon it, have been his guide in unfolding and applying the teachings of this wonderful book. With its religious principles his own mind and heart are in full accord. But he has not sought for religious instruction where the sacred writer has not furnished it, nor to find everywhere material for a religious homily. His aim has been, to bring out the original thought, and to make the obvious and direct application of it; leaving the reader, in most instances, to trace out for himself its more remote and indirect bearings. The translation and notes, in both parts of this work, were in type as far as ch. xxvi., when the further preparation of it was interrupted, early in 1862, by circumstances beyond the writer's control, and was not resumed till near the close of the last year. In the mean time valuable contributions were made to the literature of the book. Among these is the elaborate commentary of Zöckler in Lange's Bibelwerk (1867), with important additions and corrections by Dr. Aiken in the American edition (1870); Kamphausen, Die Sprüche, in Bunsen's Bibelwerk (1865); Böttcher, Ausführliches Lehrbuch der Hebräischen Sprache (1866-68), and his Neue exeget.-krit. Aehrenlese, 3te Abth. (1865); Delitzsch, art. Sprüche Salomo's, in Herzog's Realencyclop. (1861); Muehlau, De Proverbiorum quae dicuntur Aguri et Lemuelis Origine atque Indole (1869). These writers are accordingly first referred to in the portion commencing with ch. 26: 19, and the earlier part has been carefully compared with the views expressed in these later works. The references to Gesenius' Hebrew lexicon are to Dr. Robinson's latest American edition of it, enlarged by additions from the Thesaurus, and by new matter (as far as the letter Cheth) communicated to him by Gesenius in manuscript, giving the results of his more mature investigations. It is necessary to remark this, to prevent occasional misapprehension, as his authority is sometimes still quoted in support of views corrected by himself in the later American edition of his work. December, 1871. T. J. CONANT. INTRODUCTION. § 1. GNOMIC LITERATURE. THE earliest ethical and practical wisdom of most ancient nations found expression in short, pithy, and pointed sayings. These embodied, in few words, the suggestions of common experience, or of individual reflection and observation. Acute observers and thinkers, accustomed to generalize the facts of experience, and to reason from first principles, were fond of clothing their results in striking apothegms; conveying some instructive or witty reflection, some moral or religious truth, a maxim of worldly prudence or policy, or a practical rule of life. These were expressed in terms aptly chosen to awaken attention, or inquiry and reflection, and in a form that fixed them indelibly in the memory. They thus became elements of the national and popular thought, as inseparable from the mental habits of the people as the power of perception itself. Such germs of philosophic thought, the ground-ideas of ethics and economics, become the proverbial philosophy of a nation, and develope themselves in the popular life. Their value consists in condensing the most comprehensive wisdom into the briefest possible expression, furnishing for ready use on every occasion a wise and safe rule of conduct.* The classic student is familiar with a rich and varied literature of this class in the remains of what was once the popular philosophy of the Greeks. Such were the sayings of the (so called) Seven Wise Men of Greece;† the Aurea Carmina attributed to Pythagoras ;‡ the remains of the Poetae Gnomici ;§ maxims and rules contained in Hesiod's Works and Days. Scattered through the Greek classic writers are remains of gnomic wisdom; polished and sparkling gems, such as an inspired Apostle thought not unworthy to point his own earnest admonitions (1 Cor. 15: 33). But though adorned with all the elegancies of * As said by Cicero: Gravissimae sunt ad beate vivendum breviter enuntiatae sententiae. † Orelli, Opuscula Graecorum vet. sententiosa et moralia, 1819. Ed. Knauth 1720, Schier 1750, Günther 1816. گر § In the several collections of them; by Glandorf and Fortlage 1776, Brunck 1784, 1817, Schäfer 1817, Boissonade 1832. || Jerome, on Galat. 4: 24, Necnon et illud, corrumpunt bonos mores confabulationes pessimae, trimeter iambicus de comoedia sumptus est Menandri; and on Tit. 1 : 12-14, Ad Corinthios quoque, qui et ipsi Attica facundia expoliti. . . sunt, de Menandri comoedia versum sumsit iambicum, corrumpunt mores bonos colloquia mala. Compare Menandri Frag. Thais, ed. Meineke, Vol. IV. p. 132. Grecian genius and art, they will not bear comparison, in native wit, profound wisdom, and comprehensive application, with the remains of the same class of literature in the Hebrew Scriptures.* Roman literature also is rich in the treasures of gnomic wisdom. The admirable sayings of Publius Syrus would alone justify this statement. Among the few quoted by Aulus Gellius (Noct. Att. Lib. xvii. c. 14, 1), as examples of his sayings then in current use,† are the following favorable specimens of his manner, and of the spirit of his moral and practical precepts: Malum est consilium, quod mutari non potest. Feras, non culpes, quod vitari non potest. Cui plus licet quam par est, plus vult quam licet. Comes facundus in via pro vehiculo est. lta amicum habeas, posse ut fieri hunc inimicum putes. Pars beneficii est, quod petitur si belle neges. The four books on morals by the Pseudo-Cato (Dionysii Catonis disticha de moribus ad filium) are also favorable specimens of gnomic wisdom, and contain many truthful observations on life and its proper direction. These, and the sentiments of Publius Syrus, have often been published, either separately, or in collections of Roman authors, and in connection. with similar gems of wit and wisdom gathered from others.‡ Roman writers, no less than the Greek, abound in pointed moral sayings, containing some ethical truth, some practical rule of life, or pungent rebuke of vice. The collections already made from them are far from exhausting the treasures of gnomic wisdom scattered through their writings. Within their range, they are among the best moral precepts on record; regarding human life in many of its varied aspects, and in these giving the wisest rules for its direction. They are interesting and instructive, as showing that God has not left himself without a witness in man's intellectual, and moral nature. But they lack the profound religious teaching of the Hebrew writings, which takes hold on the deepest springs of moral action, and controls the whole inner and outer life. With the Arab sages the construction of moral and prudential maxims was a favorite. pastime. It was an exercise well suited to their peculiar genius and habits of thought, and to the popular taste. Hence Arabic literature is prolific in these brief and pointed * Rhode (De veterum poetarum sapientia gnomica, Hebraeorum in primis et Graecorum, 1800) is singularly unjust in his estimate of their comparative merits, and seems to have been misled by his classic tastes, and by his want of sympathy with the spirit of the Hebrew writings and their simple graces of expression. † Hujus Publii sententiae feruntur pleraeque lepidae, et ad communem sermonum usum commodatissimae. ‡ Most fully by Orelli, Syri Publii et aliorum sententiae, cet., 1822-24, and supplement 1832. Also in Auctores Lat. Minores, ed. Tzschucke, Vol. I. 1790, containing among others Syri Publii sententiae, Dionysii Catonis disticha de moribus; and in Bibliotheca Lat. classica, ed. Titze, Vol. I. 1804, containing with others Catonis Disticha, and Syri Sententiae. sayings, bearing the strongly marked characteristics of the national mind. Gravity and humor, wit and wisdom, jest and earnest, seriousness and levity, shrewd observation, practical good sense, furnish alternate matter for reflection and merriment, along with sagacious counsels, and genial correctives of the lighter and graver foibles of human nature. But they are superficial and showy, lacking in the profound moral earnestness essential to true worth in character.* The Chinese have also their gnomic literature. Of its spirit and manner the following are favorable examples. Morrison's Chinese Dictionary, Part III. p. 291 : Page 342: “On him who does good all blessings will be conferred ; On him who does evil all curses will descend." "Although a snake enter a straight bamboo tube, it is impossible to alter its nature." Ibidem : “The virtuous are not prosperous, perhaps contrariwise meet with calamities; the wicked receive not calami ties, but perhaps contrariwise obtain prosperity; and therefore continually raise men's sceptical doubts.” Ibidem: 'Repress your momentary anger, and your whole life will be without vexation or sorrow." Marshman's Chinese Grammar, Append. p. 7: "On the bathing laver of Thang was engraved, Would you thus daily cleanse your mind, correct some evil habit every day, yea continually renovate yourself.' Page 21: "The peach tree how pleasant ! Its leaves how blooming and luxuriant ! Such is a bride, when she enters the house of her spouse, More interesting in this connection, on account of their resemblance in form to the Hebrew gnomic poetry, are the following examples from the work of J. F. Davis on the poetry of the Chinese,† repeated in Vol. II. of the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol. II. page 105 (of the Transactions): Page 411: Ibidem : "The fine flower unblown exhales no sweets, "The heart, when it is harrassed, finds no place of rest; * Anthologia Sententiarum Arabicarum, cet., H. A. Schultens, 1772. Specimen Proverbiorum Meidani ex versione Pocockiana, II. A. Schultens, 1775; also in Fundgraben des Orients (durch eine Gesellschaft von Lieb habern, Wien, 1809 ff). Arabum Proverbia Sententiaeque Proverbiales, G. W. Freytag, 1838–43. + Poeseos Sinensis Commentarii. On the Poetry of the Chinese. Due allowance must be made for defects of expression in translation. But apart from this it will be admitted, that in beauty and delicacy of the conception, as well as in depth of meaning, the palm must be given, without hesitation, to the products of the Hebrew mind in the same field of thought. § 2. GNOMIC POETRY OF THE HEBREWS. When we pass to the gnomic wisdom of the Hebrew Scriptures, as exhibited in the Book of Proverbs, we find ourselves on a higher plane. There is a certainty in its ground principles, a positiveness in their assertion, a sharpness of outline between the right and the wrong in thought and action, an authority which allows no question or appeal, and a power to enforce from which there is no escape. Its starting point, the spring of all true moral action, is the distinct and positive recognition of a spiritual Personality as the Creator and universal Sovereign, and of his will as the supreme law.* "The fear of JEHOVAH is the beginning of knowledge," (ch. 1: 7), is its opening assertion; the developement of this ground thought, in its application to the life, is the substance of its teachings. Accordingly, true knowledge has its beginning, its initial step, in that harmony of the human spirit with the DIVINE, without which the soul is a chaos of conflicting impulses, without order and without direction. This principle once received into the mind, and made its central law, all its impulses move in harmony therewith and with each other. Man's spiritual nature and his relations to the spiritual world thus recognized, his lower faculties and instincts, his appetites and passions, become subservient to his higher intellectual and spiritual developement. In this distinct conception of his relation to the spiritual and eternal, and of his duties in that relation both to himself and others, there is a profound significance, and a moral grandeur, unapproached in any other writings of antiquity. The * Compare with this the faltering and hypothetical statement (Dionysii Catonis disticha moralia, lib. i. 1) : Si deus est animus, nobis ut carmina dicunt, |