ABD' EL KADER. favour of his son; who was, accordingly, invested with the office and dignity of an emir. Shortly afterwards, the neighbouring tribes acknowledged him as their chief; and from his residence, or head quarters, at Mascara, he contrived to extend his influence still more and more widely. 11 Kader's power. But these successes resulted merely in the partial destruction of that town, and the subsequent retreat of the Marshal: Abd' el Kader resumed the occupation of all the ground which he had lost. In the military operations that ensued, the French were almost uniformly The only important undertaking of Abd' the victors; seldom, however, obtaining el Kader, for a time, was an unsuccessful any advantages beyond the possession of attack, on the 3d and 4th of May 1832, on the field of battle. At length, a body of the French, who, since the events just 3000 men, under General d'Arlanges, after mentioned, had occupied the town of Oran. having fought successfully in a previous There followed then a state of more or less engagement, was defeated by the Arabian active warfare between the parties, with- chief, on the Tafna, on the 25th of April out any permanent advantage of moment 1836, and would probably have been enbeing gained by either; until, at length, tirely cut off, but for the timely arrival of wearied by such fruitless hostilities, a treaty an additional force of 4000 men, under was concluded between them, known, from General Bugeaud. On the 6th of July, of the name of the French general command- the same year, the last-mentioned genera! ing in Oran, as the treaty Desmichels. inflicted a severe defeat on the enemy on It was soon apparent that the advantages the Sikak. The war now began to lanof this treaty were principally reaped by guish; and when it became desirable for the Arabian emir. He acquired an oppor- the French, on undertaking the expedition tunity of triumphing over his enemies against Constantine, to concentrate as large among his own countrymen, and of extend- a force as possible in a different direction, ing and confirming his power; an opportunity of which he profited to the utmost by his untiring activity. The discipline, too, of his troops was improved, by the aid of European renegades. And the confidence which had been diffused in the resources and ability of the emir was evinced, by the title of sultan being now conferred upon him by every city and tribe in the provinces of Oran and Tittery. At length, the French government, become aware of the mistake which had been committed in allowing Abd' el Kader leisure to strengthen himself, appointed General Trézel to succeed General Desmichels in his command, doubtless with such instructions to direct his conduct as could scarcely fail to lead to a renewal of hostilities. Such, at any rate, was the course adopted by the new commander, and such were the consequences which ensued. A French force penetrated into the enemy's territory, as far as the river Macta,-only, after having to maintain a sanguinary conflict, to make a disastrous retreat upon the point from which it had advanced. a treaty of peace was once more concluded between them and Abd' el Kader, who consented to acknowledge the sovereignty of France. This took place on the 30th of May 1837. Abd' el Kader, however, lost no time in making every preparation in his power for a renewal of the contest at a future period. He continued to strengthen the position of Tekedemt,which, after the destruction of Mascara, he had chosen for his residence, and which he had made the seat of a manufacture of arms, and the depôt of his military stores; he sought by every means to renew the confidence of his followers in himself and his fortunes, as well as to enlist in his support the Bedouins of the Sahara; he organized anew his subject territory, delegating to others many of the details of administration, on which he had hitherto bestowed his personal attention; he endeavoured, by the instrumentality of some deserters from the French army, to form an efficient body of regular troops; and he obtained ammunition and arms from the French themselves, by the trade which had been opened So great was the moral effect of the re- to him by the late treaty, and especially sult of this expedition on the minds of the from English merchants, through Morocco, Arabs, in favour of Abd' el Kader, that it with whose ruler he always maintained was judged necessary, in November 1835, the best understanding. The better to for Marshal Clausel, the commander-in- deceive the French government as to his chief of the French army in Algiers, to real designs, besides maintaining, by means march himself, with a strong corps of troops, of his agents, an occasional intercourse against this formidable enemy of his coun- with their officers in Algiers and Oran, he trymen. He triumphed over the Arabs, sent an ambassador to Paris in the summer after an obstinate resistance, gaining pos- of 1838. When his preparations were session of Mascara, the centre of Abd' el | completed, and circumstances, in other re 12 ABD' EL KADER-ABEL. one or two papers on mathematical subjects, which brought him into notice, and, aided by the earnest recommendations of the professors, obtained for him the patronage of the government. An annual allowance of 600 dollars (thalers) was bestowed upon him, that he might travel for his improvement. He accordingly visited Berlin, Vienna, and Paris. His efforts, during the stay which he made in the last-mentioned city, to induce the men of science to promote the publication of some memoirs which he had prepared, were unavailing; and he returned, in no slight degree dis spects, seemed to be propitious, he renewed the war, on the alleged ground of the existing treaty having been violated by the expedition undertaken, in October, 1839, from Constantine, by Marshal Vallée, accompanied by the Duke of Orleans. Much hard fighting occurred in the following year, without any important results. But, in February 1841, General Bugeaud assumed the command of the French forces in Africa, in the room of Marshal Vallée. The contest at once assumed a decisive character. Blow after blow was inflicted upon Abd' el Kader, and he was soon reduced to extremities. His principal strong-couraged, to Berlin. Here, however, he holds fell into the hands of the enemy. was so fortunate as to meet with precisely The various tribes, which he had repeat- such a patron as he now wanted. Mr. edly led to battle, now, for the most part, Crelle, himself highly distinguished as a abandoned his cause as hopeless, and ac- man of science, and thoroughly qualified knowledged their subjection to the king of to judge in the case, did not hesitate, on the French. After the loss of Tlemecen perusing the papers submitted to him by and the fort of Tafrua, in the beginning of the young Norwegian, to pronounce their 1842, and the almost entire destruction of author to be entitled to take rank among his regular troops, he was under the ne- the first of living mathematicians. He cessity of seeking refuge on the territory engaged, moreover, to publish those papers of Morocco. His own tribe of Hashem, in the "Journal for the Pure and Applied with a few others, continued faithful to Mathematics," which he at once resolved him to the close of the contest, and have upon editing. This journal, too, with the since evinced a disposition to renew it at "Astronomical News" (Nachrichten) of every fitting opportunity. Abd' el Kader Mr. Schumacher, became the principal has, in fact, repeatedly returned to give mediums for the communication of Abel's serious annoyance to the foreign occupiers future labours to the scientific world. On of his country, and has latterly become his return to Christiania, Abel was appointagain sufficiently formidable to call for ex-ed to supply the place of Professor Hantraordinary measures on the part of the French government to accomplish his de struction. ABDUCTION is the carrying off, by force or fraud, of the person of a child, ward, heiress, wife or other woman. In the four first-mentioned cases, the law infers that force or fraud has been practised, although, in reality, persuasion only has been used. The abduction of females, especially heiresses, was a crime, according to Sir Walter Scott, of frequent occurrence in the Highlands of Scotland; and it is even now not seldom committed in Ireland, although, in aggravated cases, visited by the severest penalties of the law. ABEL (Nicholas Henry), one of the most acute mathematicians of the present age, was born August 5th 1802, at Findoe, in the diocese of Christiansand, in Norway. After receiving the elements of instruction from his father, who was the clergyman of that place, he was sent to the cathedral school of Christiania, where his genius for mathematics was called forth by the solution of geometrical and algebraical problems. While still at the university, which he entered in 1821, he published steen in the university and the school of engineers, during the absence of that gentleman on a journey to Siberia. He now applied himself with the most indefatigable ardour to the performance of the duties assigned him, and to the investigations in which he was engaged. But his bodily constitution was too feeble a support for a spirit like his. His health soon began to decline; and he expired on the 6th of April 1829, in the 27th year of his age. Young as he was, his merits were already everywhere acknowledged; and from no quarter had his praises been more generously and loudly uttered, than from that to which, a few years previously, he had looked for encouragement, and been disappointed. The first mathematicians of France had united in a testimonial to the government of his own country in his be half; and, although the office which he held in the university at Christiania was merely a temporary one, there can be no doubt that, had he lived, he would have been appointed to the first vacancy in that institution. As an evidence of the fame which he had acquired, it may be mentioned that, a few days after his death, an ABEYANCE. When a freehold or inhe. ritance is not vested in any one, but is ready to descend upon or vest in the persons who shall first fulfil the conditions required by the nature of the estate, such freehold or inheritance is said to be in abeyance. Thus, if lands be leased to one invitation arrived from the King of Prussia, in a high degree honourable to Abel, for him to remove his residence to Berlin. His works have been published, in the French language, in two volumes 4to, at the expense of the King of Sweden. The most important portions of them are his paper on the impossibility of a general so-person for life, with reversion to another lution of equations of the 5th degree, and those relating to elliptic functions. for years, the remainder for years is in abeyance till the death of the lessee. TiABERDEEN. Few places in Great Britain tles of honour, as well as the rights and have so much improved, during the present privileges attached to them, may also be century, as New Aberdeen. Many new in abeyance; as, for example, the peerage streets, with substantial and even elegant in England, where the persons next in inhouses, have been formed; several beauti-heritance to the last possessor are females. ful bridges have been constructed; its ma- ABIAD (BAHR EL). See Nile. nufactures and commerce in a remarkable ABJURATION* signifies any solemn redegree extended; and its harbour deep-cantation of opinions, especially of opinions ened, by lengthening the pier originally connected more or less closely with relibuilt by Smeaton in 1780. The cotton gin. Of this nature, for example, is the manufacture now employs upwards of 3000 renunciation required, on the marriage of persons; the linen 4000. There are ma- the Emperor of Russia, from his consort, nufactories of woollens; iron works of va- of her former religious persuasion, in farious descriptions; distilleries and brew-vour of the tenets of the Greek church. eries. The products of these different Such, too, was the renunciation of his Proestablishments, together with salmon, kept testantism by Henry IV. of France, in fresh by being preserved in ice, and gra- 1593, as a condition requisite to obtain the nite, for building and paving purposes, acknowledgment of his sovereignty by his constitute the chief exports. A new edi- Roman Catholic subjects; as well as that fice has been erected for Marischal College, which was exacted by the Inquisition at and the numbers of the students attending Rome, in the following century, from Gathe courses in it and King's College, in lileo, of his doctrines concerning the moOld Aberdeen, have been considerably in- tion of the earth. When abjuration of the creased. In the session of 1837-38, we realm is mentioned by English writers, find them stated to have amounted to about what is meant is the taking of an oath, 700. The population of the Old and New permitted by the ancient common law to Town together was, in 1841, about 62,000. any felon who has not been guilty of sacriABERDEEN (Lord).* To what has been lege, and who has fled to a parish church already stated concerning this nobleman, or churchyard for sanctuary, to renounce in a previous volume of the present work, and depart the realm for ever. we may add that he was appointed Secre- of abjuration in England created by statary of State for Foreign Affairs in 1828, tute, see Abjuration. In the United States under the Duke of Wellington's ministry. we also have an oath or oaths of abjuration. Directed by him, a reaction then took place Every alien, on becoming a citizen, is rein the foreign policy of Great Britain. The quired to abjure all allegiance and fidelity battle of Navarino was disapproved of, and to any government of which he was before declared to be "an untoward event;" and a citizen or subject. And if the alien shall British diplomacy was employed in nego-have borne any hereditary title, or belonged tiating in the interest of Don Miguel, by the very individual who, but a short time before, had applied to the Portuguese prince in Parliament the harshest epithets. Lord Aberdeen quitted office, with the ABLUTION; a religious ceremony, conDuke of Wellington, in November 1830;sisting in washing of the body, either became a member of the cabinet again, as wholly or partially. Ablutions, or lustraSecretary of the Colonies, during the short- tions, as they are also styled, were prelived tory administration, from November scribed in the Mosaic law, on various oc11th 1834 to April 8th 1835; and was casions; sometimes to the priests, and at once more placed in charge of the foreign other times to the people of Israel genedepartment, on the accession of Mr. Peel rally. The superstitious attachment to and his friends to power, in 1841. them of the Hindoos, at the present day, ABETTOR. See Accessary. is well known, as well as their peculiar For oaths to any order of nobility, in the country from which he came, he must also make an express renunciation of such title or order of nobility. 14 ABLUTION-ABYSSINIA. reverence for the waters of the Ganges. | have their origin in the intestinal canal, This last is carried to such an extent, that it is said, if a votary who cannot go to that river, will call upon it when bathing in another stream, he will be cleansed from any sin or pollution he may have contracted. But it is among the Mohammedans that we find the greatest faith reposed in the spiritual efficacy of ablutions. Actions the most ordinary or trifling in their nature should, according to their strictest doctors, be preceded or followed by them. The early Christians practised ablutions before partaking of the communion; and the Roman Catholics still occasionally do so before and after mass. and, absorbing the milky fluid denominated chyle, become the instruments for conveying into the system the new particles of matter which are necessary to replace the loss of the old. The lymphatics pervade every part of the body, and are employed in taking up and carrying away the old and worn-out particles. By means of the absorbents of the skin, also, foreign substances, capable of powerfully affecting the system, may be introduced into it. Such, for example, is the case with mercury when rubbed on the skin. ABUTMENT, in architecture, is the part of a pier on which an arch is made to rest. It is a term especially employed in reference to bridges. ABO. Since the great fire of 1827, the university has been removed to Helsingfors. Abo has, since that event, been rebuilt on a regular plan, with broad and well-constructed streets. It has about 14,000 inhabitants. The trade of the place is considerable, and ship-building is carried on to a large extent. Here also are a gymnasium and a school of navigation; and it is the seat of justice for South Fin-ence, have traversed the country in valand. ABRAHAM MEN. A set of vagabonds were so called, who were to be found in England at a period when very inadequate provision was made for the support and cure of lunatics, and when such of this description of persons as were harmless were turned out of the hospitals to subsist on the casual alms of the community. Going about in ragged and fantastic clothing, and singing portions of old ballads, they pretended to be insane, and exercised a profitable trade by imposing on the ings of the humane and charitable. ABRANTES. See Junot, (Sup.) ABSCESS; an inflammatory tumour, containing purulent matter or pus. ABYSSINIA has been visited, of late years, by many Europeans, of very different endowments, and with very different objects in view. English and French official or unofficial emissaries, Roman Catholic and Protestant missionaries, and commercial agents, as well as men of sci rious directions; and if the reports they have rendered respecting it have not added to our knowledge in as great a degree as might have been anticipated, they have at least served to confirm most of the statements of preceding travellers, to which, on account of their anomalous character, the public still hesitated to give credence. Northern Abyssinia, it would seem, has, for some time past, instead of advancing, retrograded in civilization. Subdivided as it is into a number of independent states feel-(the principal of them being those of Amhara and Tigre,) which are almost unremittingly engaged in a fierce and exterminating warfare with each other, cultivation is in many places rapidly disappearing, and the numbers of the people are subjected to a regular diminution. The entire population, east of the Tacazze, is estimated by Rüppell at half a million; west of that river, at a million more. United under one monarch, having his residence at Ankober, the provinces of Shoa and Efat, in the south, are comparatively prosperous. He has not merely been able to arrest the progress of the warlike tribes of the Galla, but has even wrested from them a portion of their former conquests, and made some of them his tributaries. His friendship has been thought worthy to be courted by both the French and the English, in reference to their political or mercantile interests.-In its general aspect, Abyssinia consists of a series of elevated plateaus, varying from 6000 to 10,000 feet in height, ABSOLUTISM; a political term of modern origin, signifying a system of government in which, in opposition to that of a constitutional monarchy, all the powers of the state, legislative as well as executive, centre in a single individual. In Spain and Portugal, the political parties who for many years, since the fall of Napoleon, were engaged in a struggle with each other for the ascendancy, are very commonly styled the absolutists and the constitutionalists; the former applying to the King of Spain especially, as a title of honour, the designation of the absolute king. ABSORBENTS, in anatomy, are very minute vessels, which take up any fluid from the surface or in any cavity of the body, and convey it into the blood. They are either lacteal or lymphatic. The lacteals and intersected by three considerable | stem of which, many feet in length, is said chains of mountains, viz., those of Lamal- to afford a wholesome and nutritious diet; mon, Samen, and Gojam, besides smaller ones. The highest peaks (those of Samen), we are told, attain to an elevation of 14,000 feet above the level of the sea, and, contrary to the assertion of Bruce, reach the limits of perpetual snow. The chief rivers are the Bahr-el-Azrek or Blue river, long mistaken for the main stream of the Nile, and the Tacazze, with their numerous branches; some of these being themselves of very considerable magnitude. Both rise in the same chain or cluster of mountains, in the province of Gojam, and, after a general N. or N.W. course, unite with the Bahr-el-Abiad, or true Nile, in Sennaar. In the early part of its course, the firstmentioned river reaches and passes through the great lake of Tzana or Dembea. The Mareb, which is the most important branch of the Tacazze, is remarkable for losing itself, in the dry season, in the sand, before it reaches its proper destination. But the Hawash, a large river on the S.E. border of the kingdom of Shoa, presents a still more remarkable phenomenon: it flows towards the Red Sea, but never reaches it; in every period of the year losing itself in the intervening sandy desert. The climate, as might be supposed from the varying elevation of the different parts of the country, exhibits as great a diversity as perhaps any other territory of equal extent. That of the greater portion of it, however, is temperate; Fahrenheit's thermometer ranging, during the year, from 41 to 69°. From April to September, there is a continued rainy season. Vegetation, during this time, advances with such rapidity as to admit of two, and, in some favoured spots, even three harvests being gathered; and by swelling the rivers which eventually discharge their waters into the Nile, the rains contribute also largely to the fertility of Egypt. Wheat is cultivated on the higher grounds, and is consumed only by the rich. The teff grows in almost all but the lowest situations, and from it is made the bread consumed by the people generally, of all classes; and on the lowest grounds, where no other grain will grow, the tocusso is raised, which, on being mixed with teff and barley, is a substitute, with the poor, for the better kinds of bread. Barley is chiefly used as food for horses. Besides the plants already mentioned, a considerable number of very remarkable ones are to be found in Abyssinia; some of them scarcely met with anywhere else. Among these may be mentioned the ensete, the green leafless the kolqual, whose leaves and branches |