surpassed by none made by him elsewhere, | unless perhaps by the part which he performed during the Union Convention of Georgia in 1832, when he was mainly instrumental in preventing that state from pledging itself to the "nullifying" doctrines of S. Carolina.- Mr. Forsyth died at Washington, after a painful illness, on the 21st of October 1841, the day only before he would have completed his 61st year. FORTH. Steamboats go up the Forth as far as Stirling, and ships of 300 tons as far as Alloa, 23 miles lower down the river. institutions of their maintenance. Towards the end of the last century, 80 per cent. of the children are said to have died at Paris in a single year; 90 at Marseilles; 91 at Dublin. The mortality is now much diminished; though it is thought that in France nearly 60 per cent. still die in their first year. The whole number of children annually exposed is said to be, at St. Petersburg, about 45 per cent. of those born; at Rome, 28; at Lisbon, 26; at Vienna, 23; at Paris, 21. FOURIER (Charles), the founder of the system of social and industrial reform which bears his name, was the son of a cloth merchant of Besançon, in France, where he was born on the 7th of April 1772. At school, he exhibited a considerable aptitute in acquiring knowledge; but his father, intending that his life should be devoted to commerce, transferred him at an early age, to his own counting-house. Subsequently, Fourier was a clerk in a mercantile establishment at Marseilles, then at Lyons, and next at Paris. Here, and in the same capacity, he continued to reside till his death, October 8th 1837.— His first essay as an author was an article FOSSOMBRONE, anciently Forum Sempronii; a town of Central Italy, in the Papal States, on the river Metauro, 7 miles E.S.E. of Urbino, and on the road from Fano to Rome. It has about 5000 inhabitants, and is noted for its manufactures of silk (Seta della Manca), reputed to be the finest in Italy. Near this town was fought, in the year 194 B.C., the great battle between the Carthaginians under Asdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, and the Romans, in which the former were totally defeated, and their general killed. FOUNDLING. The attention of the pub-inserted in a newspaper of Lyons, in 1804, lic has of late years been perhaps more on the foreign relations of France, which directed in France than anywhere else caused some sensation, and even excited to the subject of foundling hospitals, from the attention of Napoleon. The latter the immorality, mortality, and expense, went so far as to make particular inquiries connected with them; and the results of concerning the writer, but contented himthe investigations instituted in reference self with satisfying his curiosity, without to them are stated in the excellent work improving the condition of the humble of Messrs. Terme and Montfalcon, enti- clerk. Fourier henceforth studiously avoidtled "Histoire des Enfants Trouvés," pub- ed all merely political topics, and employed lished in 1837. These writers, after show- his leisure in endeavouring to resolve the ing that the number of the children depo- great problem of the means best adapted sited in the hospitals in France has been to give to every member of a community steadily increasing, and this in a greater the greatest possible command over the ratio than the population of the kingdom, necessaries and luxuries of life. In 1808, explicitly declare that it is "not poverty, he announced the outline of his theory on but luxury, which produces exposures." If this subject in a work entitled "Théorie we grant this to be the fact, it will be not des quatres mouvements et des destinées at all surprising that the suppression of générales." Not discouraged by the very the turning-boxes, or, in other words, ren- slight impression which it seemed to make dering the abandonment public, united on the public mind, he followed it up, 14 with the measure of removing the new-years afterwards (1822), by the publication born children into another department, should produce a great reduction in the number presented for admission, and, consequently, in the expenditure required for maintaining the hospitals.-In Italy, Belgium, and other countries where such hospitals prevail, a similar increase of burden has of late years been felt. There can be no doubt, however, that this is to be attributed in part to the improvement which has taken place in the management of the infants. Formerly death soon relieved the of his "Traité d'association domestiqueagricole" (2 vols. 8vo.), where his ideas are developed with much of detail, and with all the distinctness in his power. And without having, in reality, anything new to say, he added to the works already mentioned, "Le nouveau monde industriel et sociétaire" (1829); “La fausse industrie" (1835); a pamphlet against St. Simon and Owen (1831); together with a number of articles in the "Phalanstère," and the "Phalange," two journals esta FOURIER. blished successively, by one or two wealthy converts to his doctrines, for their more effectual propagation among the people of France. In despite, however, of Fourier's efforts to exhibit his opinions in different lights, so as to make them intelligible to all, a great deal of what he has written appears vague and confused; as much, perhaps, from the author's frequent use of language in a sense peculiar to himself, as on account of any deficiency of skill on his part. His words very generally, or at least not seldom, imply that the various passions which impel the mind to action are implanted by God, and must therefore, in their very nature, be proper guides to determine the course which it is fitting and virtuous for man to pursue. To put any check, consequently, upon these passions, should be the very essence of vice. Yet he speaks of the miseries to which mankind are subject, as owing entirely to our inability to comprehend the will of God in the false condition of society in which we are placed by a mistaken civilization; and to an adequate comprehension of which the human race are promised that they shall arrive only after a long period of tribulation and suffering. Now, if this be so, he has surely no reason for assuming the passions to be indicative of the will of our Maker. Notwithstanding this inconsistency in the foundation on which he has thought proper to erect his system, this was adapted, by the very obscurity in which it was involved, to make a favourable impression on a class of persons with whom to speak or write intelligibly or perspicuously is to be commonplace, and to employ a phraseology that nobody else employs is a certain indication of originality of thought, as well as of language. But what are the practical measures recommended as the means to procure for every member of society the greatest amount of the good things of this world, and to remove gradually the obstacles, created by a vicious civilization, to the virtue and happiness of man? They seem to be all comprised in the union of every 300 or 400 families in an association for producing, by their joint labours, the various articles which they desire to con 277 to the common stock, to the labour exerted by him, and the degree of skill or talent with which it is applied; and is to be determined by the votes of his fellow-members. No provision appears to have been made by Fourier for the exchange of the surplus produce of one of his phalanges for that of another; far less of the produce of one country for that of another. His mind was, indeed, exceedingly prejudiced against mercantile pursuits of every description, he having had the misfortune to witness, in the course of his experience, many of the worst arts resorted to by dishonest men, in palming off their wares upon the unsuspecting buyer for more than a proper value, or in evading the duties or taxes imposed upon them by the government. Independently, however, of this consideration, while it cannot be denied that a number of men, co-operating together in the business of production, may, in many cases, be able to obtain more of the necessaries and luxuries of life than they would when working individually, he seems to have formed a very inadequate estimate of the difficulty of maintaining the order and harmony of such a community as we are speaking of, at least for any protracted period of time; and he has also evinced an entire ignorance of the tendency of population to increase everywhere up to the level of the accustomed means of subsistence, and thus to counteract in a great measure the advantages conferred by all improvements of a nature purely material. It was only after the decline of the doctrines of the St. Simonians that Fourierism has attained a certain vogue; but it still remains a mere theory, the attempts hitherto made by its disciples to bring it to the test of experiment having failed, for want of a sufficient capital to construct the buildings, and furnish the various instruments and other requisites, for providing the members of a phalange with work, and with the means of support until their work shall have begun to yield its proper fruits. FOURIER (Jean Baptiste Joseph, baron) was born at Auxerre, in France, March 21st 1768, of poor and humble parentage. He was instructed by the Benedictines, and was destined by them to take in due time the monastic vows. Such, however, was the ability which he evinced in his scientific studies, that, when scarcely 18 years of age, he was appointed to teach the mathematics in the school of his native town, where he had been educated. Not long afterwards, on the establishment of the normal school at Paris, he was sent to it by electing him a member of many of their learned societies, and, among these, of the Royal Society of London. Fourier, in addition to his distinction in science, was a skilful writer, and possessed of a fine literary taste; and these merits led to his being enrolled, in 1827, among the 40 members of the "Académie française." He died on the 16th of May 1830.-His principal works are the "Preliminary Discourse to the great work on Egypt" (Paris, 1810. 1 vol. fol.); "Memoirs on differ thematics" (1821. 4to.), being a reprint of papers originally inserted in different scientific collections; his work on heat, previously mentioned; "Reports on the Progress of the Mathematical Sciences" (from 1822 to 1829 inclusive); together with eulogies of Delambre (1823), Sir William Herschel (1824), and Breguet (1826). by his department, and so distinguished | tries also bore their testimony to his merits, himself there among the foremost of his competitors, that, when the polytechnic school was organized in 1795, he was selected, through the recommendation of Lagrange and Monge, to be one of its professors. He was one of the "savants" who accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt, where he continued after the latter returned to France. He was secretary of the Institute of Cairo, and filled for a time the office of French commissary in that city; performing, besides, with credit to himself, various administrative and diplo-ent questions in General Physics and Mamatic functions that were occasionally as signed to him. In the beginning of 1802, he was appointed prefect of the department of the Isère; on the institution of the legion of honour, one of its members; and in 1808, a baron of the empire, with a suitable endowment. While discharging the duties of his prefecture in a most assiduous and exemplary manner, he found leisure to prosecute his extensive and admirable researches on the laws of the propagation of heat through solid bodies, which furnished him with the materials for his memoir on the mathematical theory of heat, a memoir that, after obtaining the prize of the Academy of Sciences, was subsequently expanded by the author into his celebrated work entitled "Théorie analytique de la chaleur" (1822). When Napoleon, on landing in France from the island of Elba, advanced towards Grenoble, Fourier, in his character of prefect, issued a proclamation calling upon the inhabitants of his department to remain faithful to the existing government, and quitted his post on the arrival of the emperor. A few days only afterwards, Napoleon, nevertheless, from respect for his character, or from motives of policy, or both, named him prefect of the department of the Rhone. The confidence thus evinced in him was met by Fourier's acceptance of the appointment offered him; but having remonstrated against certain measures which he was required to adopt, he was removed from office before the conclusion of the "100 days." Thenceforth he devoted himself exclusively to scientific pursuits. In 1816, he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences. Louis XVIII., however, refused to confirm his election. He was again elected in the following year by a unanimous vote of the members, when the king no longer refused his assent. He was, very soon after his admission, chosen perpetual secretary of the Academy, in conjunction with Cuvier. The leading scientific men of other coun FRANCE. A census of the inhabitants is taken every five years. The first regular one was that of the year 1801. It was executed with great care, and may be regarded as having been sufficiently exact for all practical purposes. The censuses of 1806, 1811, and 1826, were only estimates; that of 1816 is wanting; those of 1821, 1831, 1836, and 1841, may be relied upon for the accuracy of the results within the unavoidable limits of error. In 1836, the total amount of the population of France was 33,540,910; and in 1841 it was 34,213,929. The increase of the population, in the 40 years ending with 1841, was 6,864,926; a result very remarkable, especially if we recollect the great consumption of human life in the wars of the first 15 years of this period. Every portion of the country is not equally populous. It is divided by the parallel of the 47th degree of latitude into two parts, of which the northern has an area of 12,093 square leagues, and the southern an area of 14,620 square leagues; yet the former had, in 1836, very nearly 3,000,000 of inhabitants more than the latter. In the lastmentioned year, the average population throughout the country was 1256 to the square league, or 164 to the square mile. The number of illegitimate births, which in 1800 was only 41,635, had in 1831 increased to 74,727; so that while the total population had increased about 1-4th part, the number of illegitimate births had nearly doubled. The proportion of the latter varies greatly in different departments; it is largest in those which contain the largest cities. In the deparunent of the FRANCE. 279 Seine, comprehending Paris and its imme- | cession to the throne, to observe faithfully diate vicinity, the illegitimate are to the the constitutional charter. The civil list legitimate births as 1 to 2.66. Illegiti is fixed for the whole of a reign by the mate births are fewest in La Vendée, first legislature that may be assembled where the proportion is only 1 to 62.48. after the accession of a new monarch. There are about 1800 suicides annually The king attains his majority when he has committed in France, which gives 1 for completed his 18th year. If, on the death every 18,333 inhabitants. They are more of his predecessor, he has not attained this frequent in the north than in the south. age, the prince, next in the order of sucIn the department of the Seine the pro- cession, is invested with the regency of portion is 1 to 3632, and in that of the the kingdom during his minority; and the Upper Loire only as 1 to 163,242 deaths. regent is to possess all the prerogatives, France has but very few large towns; but and to exercise the entire power, of the it has a great number with a population monarch. The Peers are appointed by varying from 5000 to 20,000, Of the total the king for life, and are selected from population, 4-5ths are estimated to reside certain classes of persons designated by in the rural districts, and but 1-5th part in the charter; an arrangement, however, towns of more than 1500 inhabitants.-It which admits of being modified by a spehas also been estimated that 30,000,000 cial law. Their number is not limited.or more of the whole population of the The Chamber of Deputies is composed of kingdom speak French, or various patois representatives chosen by the electoral having different degrees of analogy with colleges. The number of these colleges, that language: the German, or rather a since the year 1831, has been fixed at 459, corrupt dialect of the German, is spoken each of them naming one deputy. To be by a great portion of the people in some eligible as such, it is required to be at least of the N. E. departments; the Breton in 30 years of age, and to pay at least 500 Brittany; the Flemish on the N. frontier, francs of direct taxes. But it is provided towards Belgium; the Basque near the that if there should, in any department, Pyrenees; and the Italian in Corsica.be less than 50 persons having these quali The great majority of the population of France hold the Roman Catholic faith. The Calvinists may amount to 850,000; the Lutherans to 500,000; and there may be a few thousands of other sects professing Christianity. There are also probably about 60,000 or 70,000 Jews. The Catholics have 14 archbishops, and 68 bishops; the last bishopric constituted being that of Algiers, in 1838. Toleration exists in a widely extended degree; every one, in the words of the charte, "professes his religion with equal freedom, and obtains for his worship the same protection." Hence when it is said that the Roman Catholic is the dominant religion in France, all that is meant is that it is the religion of the greatest number of the people. The clergy of other sects, Jewish as well as Christian, are supported by the government, as well as those of the Roman Catholic church. Besides the powers and privileges pertaining to the " king of the French," as declared in the amended 14th article of the charter, and enumerated in a preceding article of this work, justice is administered in his name, and he exercises the pardoning power; he convokes the Chambers annually; prorogues them; and may dissolve that of the Deputies. In the last event, however, he is required to convoke a new chamber within three months afterwards. He takes an oath, on his ac fications, this number is to be completed by adding to the list from those whose taxes are the highest. The chamber is renewed every five years; and every member, when appointed to an office to which a salary is annexed, vacates his seat, though he may be again immediately re-elected to it. The whole number of electors in France, in 1843, was 234,591. To be an elector, the principal conditions are the having attained the age of 25 years, and the payment of direct taxes to the amount of 200 francs. The ministers may be members of either of the two chambers, and, whether or not, they have the right of appearing in them, and likewise of being heard whenever they desire to deliver their opinions before them.-In 1844, there were 9 ministers of state:the Keeper of the Seals (Garde des Sceaux) or minister of Justice and of Public Worship, the ministers of Foreign Af fairs, of War, of the Marine, of the Interior, of Public Works, of Agriculture and Commerce, of the Finances, and of Public Instruction. The ministers are assisted by a Council of State (Conseil d'État), the members of which, as well as the ministers, are appointed and dismissed at the pleasure of the king. The 86 departments of France are subdivided into 363 arrondissements, and these again into 2834 cantons, and 37,234 communes. Each de 280 FRANCE. partment is governed by a prefect, with a | first, every commune is obliged by law to salary from 10,000 to 40,000 francs a year, support at least one primary school, either except in the department of the Seine, of its own, or in conjunction with neighwhere the salary of the prefect is 100,000 bouring communes. Reading, writing, the francs. Each arrondissement is superin- French language, the first rules of arithtended by a subprefect, with a salary of metic, weights and measures, the outlines 4000 francs a year; and each commune of geography, history, and drawing, are by a mayor and other magistrates, whose the principal branches of education in the services are gratuitous. The prefect is primary schools; and they are afforded assisted by the council-general of the de- gratuitously. A provision is made for obpartment, which consists of a member from taining an adequate number of competent each canton, and meets once a year. The teachers, by the establishment of normal present civil and criminal law of France | schools, specially appropriated to their inhas been embodied in codes, drawn up, struction. The course of study and pracunder the auspices of Napoleon, with singular brevity and perspicuity; and is honestly and impartially administered. Trial by jury is introduced in all criminal cases, except in those which are cognizable by the Chamber of Peers, that is, in cases of treason against the state, and offences against its own proper dignity. The prisons are divided into five classes:-of maisons d'arrêts, for detention during a period less than a year; of maisons de justice, there being one in the capital of each department, for imprisonment for a longer term; central prisons, of which there are 20, containing, in 1836, 17,560 persons; 3 bugnes, at Brest, Rochefort, and Toulon, in which there are about 7000 criminals; and dépôts de mendicité, of which there are 5. It is estimated that there are annually about 38,000 individuals under confinement, or the surveillance of the police. Female criminals compose about 1-5th of the whole. Crimes against the person are most common in the departments of the centre and south of France; their number being greatest in Corsica. Crimes against property abound most in the north.-Public instruction in France, with some exceptions to be afterwards noted, is placed under the superintendence of a royal council of public instruction (Conseil royal de l'instruction publique), composed of 8 members, and presided over by the minister of public instruction. Under their authority, 12 inspectors-general visit all parts of the kingdom, to ascertain the state of education; and, subordinate to this central body, there are 27 academical boards, to which the immediate direction and superintendence of education within their respective districts are entrusted. The entire system, thus organized, is styled the 'University of France;" and the minister of Justice has the title of Grand Master of the University, and Rector of the Academy of Paris. The instruction rendered is classed under the three heads of primary, secondary, and superior. To afford the tice in these schools lasts two years. The secondary instruction is conducted in the royal colleges (colléges royaux), the communal colleges (colleges communaux), the institutions, and the pensions; and the object of the normal school of Paris is to form professors for these establishments. No one can be appointed to a professorship in a royal college who has not previously passed an examination, which takes place annually in the capital, before a properly qualified board, and been pronounced by it to be worthy of such an appointment, or, in the technical language employed, to be an agrégé. In 1842, of 243 candidates for aggregation, only 33 passed the ordeal to which they were subjected successively; and 19 of these had been pupils of the normal school. The number of royal colleges in the year just mentioned was 46 (five of them in Paris), having altogether 1216 professors and other functionaries, and 18,697 pupils; and the number of the communal colleges, in active operation, was 148, with 1669 professors, and 26,584 pupils. The superior instruction is divided into the five faculties of Theology, Law, Medicine, the Sciences, and Letters: the degrees conferred are those of Bachelor, Licentiate, and Doctor. The faculty of Theology has 6 Roman Catholic Schools (at Paris, Aix, Bordeaux, Lyons, Rouen, and Toulouse), a Lutheran school at Strasburg, and a Calvinistic one at Montauban. The faculty of Law has 9 schools, attended at Paris, in 1840, by 2798 students, by 187 at Aix, 164 at Caen, 138 at Dijon, 160 at Grenoble, 181 at Poitiers, 184 at Rennes, 105 at Strasburg, and 543 at Toulouse. The faculty of Medicine has 3 schools, having at Paris, in 1840, 26 professors, and 949 students, at Montpellier 17 professors and 205 students, and at Strasburg 14 professors and 85 students. None are permitted to attend the courses of instruction but such as have received the diplomas of bachelor in letters and the sciences; and four years of attendance |