FRANCE. prisoned in the castle of Ham, were set at liberty; the indignation, which had been so extensively and violently felt towards them, having been for some time converted into a sympathy for their misfortunes. Notwithstanding the apparent strength of the government, and the ease and regularity with which its functions seemed to be performed, there was a latent feeling of dissatisfaction with it to a considerable degree pervading the community, and only prevented from exhibiting itself openly by an apprehension of thereby inviting a repetition of revolutionary horrors. To a knowledge of the existence of this feeling, and a disposition to take advantage of it for selfish purposes, we must ascribe such attempts at insurrection as that made at Strasburg on the 29th of October, by Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, a nephew of the late emperor, aided by a few followers. It was instantly suppressed, and the young prince shipped off to America. But while the leader of the party was treated with forbearance, the government had the indiscretion, to say the least of it, to arraign the subordinate conspirators before the court of assize of the department of the Lower Rhine. The humanity of the jury refused to convict them (January 1837) of any crime, on the express ground of the individual principally implicated having been withdrawn from all inquiry. As the king was proceeding, accompanied by his three eldest sons, to open the session of the Chamber of Deputies, on the 27th of December 1836, a pistol was fired at him by a workman, of the name of Meunier. The ball passed through the back of the vehicle in which the king was seated, and only narrowly missed him. Meunier was iminediately apprehended, and, after trial, condemned in April of the following year to suffer death; but this sentence was commuted into banishment for 10 years. Louis Philippe was not prevented, by this fourth attempt upon his life, from executing his intention of meeting the Chambers on the day in which it was made. The speech which he delivered to them was one of considerable length, and he alluded in it, with the greatest composure, to the event that had just occurred.-As on a former and similar occasion, the ministers, taking advantage of the attempt which had been made on the life of the king, proposed several new laws, of a nature to fortify the executive branch of the government. The law of "disjonction," as it was called, was the most remarkable of these. It was introduced into the Chamber of Deputies, January 24th 1837, by the 291 minister of War, General Bernard, and provided that, in the event of both military and civil persons being engaged in the commission of a common crime, the former should be arraigned before a military tribunal, and the latter only have, in any case, the benefit of the trial by jury. It was at the same time proposed to revive the punishment of deportation; the island of Bourbon being designated for this purpose. Another proposition, too, was presented on the following day, to subject to a severe punishment all persons who should fail to communicate to the public authorities, within 24 hours of obtaining it, such information as they might possess concerning any conspiracy against the life of the king. These propositions were, however, rejected by the Chamber of Deputies on the 7th of March; and a bill for making a pecuniary provision for the king's second son, the duke of Nemours, experienced the same fate. Guizot thereupon zealously urged a dissolution of the Chamber, and a consequent appeal to the electors in behalf of the existing administration. M. Molé objected, and Guizot, with the other doctrinaire members of the cabinet, Gasparin, Persil, and Duchâtel, resigned their places. Montalivet became minister of the Interior; Salvandy was entrusted with the department of Education; Lacave-Laplagne with that of the Finances; and Barthe was appointed keeper of the Seals. These arrangements were far from being satisfactory to the opposition members. Holding, as the new ministers did, the same opinions as their predecessors in office, there was apparently no adequate reason for the change which had occurred. The session of the chamber was, however, brought to a close before an opportunity was afforded of a successful attack on the new administration. They had voted all the grants of money required from them by the government, including one of 2,000,000 francs a year, on occasion of the marriage of the duke of Orleans, the king's eldest son, with the princess Helena of Mecklenburg, instead of 1,000,000 francs which had been previously bestowed upon him, and including also another grant of 1,000,000 francs as a dowry to the king's eldest daughter, the queen of the Belgians; nevertheless, all this failed to conciliate to them the feelings of Louis Philippe and his ministers. When, in the course of the summer, an improvement took place in the affairs of the French in Algiers, and the course of events in Spain, likewise, appeared to become more propitious, it was, at length, 292 FRANCE. resolved to take the step insisted upon by Guizot, and the refusal to take which had caused his resignation. The Chamber of Deputies was dissolved on the 4th of October. The expectations which had been entertained by the government of obtaining a decided majority of the newly elected deputies favourable to its measures were disappointed. They met in December 1837; but nothing very important occurred during the first two months of the session. At length, one of the liberal members, on the 20th of February 1838, presented a "projet de loi," to reduce the interest on the public debt; and about the same period, another was presented by the minister of Commerce, empowering the government to construct an extensive system of canals, and four great lines of railway communication. After a long protracted discussion, the former was adopted by the deputies on the 5th day of May following, but was shortly afterwards rejected by the peers. The latter gave occasion to another defeat experienced by the government: it was also rejected, by the popular branch of the legislature; and the construction of canals and railroads was left, as before, to the enterprise of private associations. In the spring of this year, a model was discovered of a new infernal machine," in the possession of one of the pardoned republicans, named Huber; who, it would seem, intended to construct the machine itself in imitation of it, and then to make another attempt to destroy the lives of the king and his family. He was tried by a jury, and sentenced to deportation. The ministry conducted itself with rather a high hand towards some of the weaker sovereign states. Prince Louis Napoleon had returned from America to Europe, and taken up his abode in Switzerland, where he put forth a pamphlet under the name of a certain Lieutenant Laidy, of the French army, in which he maintained his own claims to the throne of France. The French ministry, not satisfied with dragging Laidy before the Chamber of Peers, which condemned him to be imprisoned for five years, and to pay a fine of 10,000 francs, for the crime of allowing his name to be used by the prince, demanded of the Swiss Confederacy the expulsion of the latter from its territory, and to enforce its demand, assembled a military force on the frontier. As the Swiss determined not to yield, hostilities might have taken place between the two countries, had not the individual himself, in relation to whom the difficulties between them existed, been sufficiently discreet to put an end to those difficulties by voluntarily quitting Switzerland. For the measures which the French government pursued during this year (1838) towards Mexico and the republic of La Plata, the reader is referred to the articles Mexico and La Plata, in this volume. On the opening of the session of the chambers, in December 1838, a formidable opposition to the existing ministers was very speedily developed. The "liberals" and "doctrinaires," with Thiers and Guizot respectively as leaders, had now cordially united to effect their overthrow; and deeming it most prudent to retire before the approaching storm, they resigned their places on the 22d of January 1839. Marshal Soult was commissioned by the king to organize a new ministry. As he, however, declared that it was impossible for this to be done, with the probability of its possessing in a sufficient degree the confidence of the chambers, without comprehending Thiers, Louis Philippe objected, recalled his former ministers, and then immediately adjourned, and, a few days afterwards dissolved, the Chamber of Deputies. But the appeal to the electors, thus made, proved unsuccessful. The opposition triumphed, and M. Molé and his colleagues once more resigned (March 9th). For upwards of two months, the utmost confusion pervaded every department of the government. Every attempt at the formation of a ministry proved to be unsuccessful; serious tumults took place in the capital; aud the country seemed threatened with a state of revolution and anarchy. At length, a new ministry was announced, on the 13th of May, which, though a mere expedient for the occasion, possessed sufficient weight of character and influence to tranquillize the public mind, and to carry on with regularity the ordinary business of the nation. Marshal Soult was its leading member: he occupied the post of president of the Council and minister of Foreign Affairs; Teste became minister of Justice; General Schneider, of War; Passy, of the Finances; Cunin-Gridaine, of Commerce; Duperré, of the Marine; Villemain, of Public Instruction; Dufaure, of Public Works; and Duchâtel, of the Interior. Composed of widely differing elements, the only principle, if principle it can be called, by which this ministry could be kept together, was the non-action upon all the questions of difference between the parties which divided the chambers and the country. Nothing of moment occurred, in consequence, during the interval that elapsed till the end of the session empire. Subsequently to the close of the session, in July 1840, the undivided attention of Thiers was bestowed upon the affairs of the East. He made every effort to induce the other great European powers, Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, to allow the pacha of Egypt to retain permanent possession of the whole of Syria; and on failing to accomplish his object by the arts of diplomacy, he is supposed to have endeavoured to persuade the pacha to make the best peace he could with the Porte, without waiting for the intervention of the great powers. The four of these which have just been mentioned, acting on this presumption, concluded, at London, a treaty among themselves, on the 15th of July (1840), and proceeded, agreeably to the terms of it, to settle the eastern question, without waiting any longer for the acquiescence of France in their views. For the prompt and effectual manner in which this was done, see the article Turkey, in this volume. On the announcement of the treaty of July, the greatest excitement pervaded the whole of France: the national dignity was supposed to have been grossly insulted; and a cry for war resounded through the country. The ministry, too, seemed to be animated by the same spirit as the people generally. An extraordinary activity prevailed in the ports and naval arsenals of the kingdom; and Louis Philippe, whose predilections for the mainte of the legislature, on the 7th of August 1839. When it re-assembled on the 23d of December following, the state of the French affairs in Africa, and the difficulties, in respect to the disposition to be made of Syria (for a time commonly called the eastern question), arising out of the war waged by the pacha of Egypt against the grand seignior, added to the feeble and uncertain policy of the ministers, produced a degree of embarrassment on their part, rendering them almost utterly powerless for good or for evil.-A month had scarcely elapsed, when their supporters in the Chamber of Deputies found themselves in a minority, on the question of a provision of 500,000 of francs annually for the duke of Nemours, then asked for by Marshal Soult, on the occasion of the duke's marriage with a German princess; and on the failure of a second attempt, on the 20th of February (1840), the ministers deemed it expedient to resign their places. The king now felt himself constrained to have recourse to the decidedly liberal party, as the only possible means of carrying on the government. Thiers became president of the Council, and minister of Foreign Affairs; Rémusat, of the Interior; Vivien, of Justice; Gouin, of Commerce; Roussin, of the Marine; Pelet, of the Finances; Cubières, of War; Cousin, of Education; and Jaubert, of Public Works. Supported, as they soon appeared to be, by a decided majority of the deputies, their accession to office awak-nance of peace could not be doubted, was ened expectations in the mass of the people of a re-action in the government, in favour of the principles of the revolution of 1830, and a corresponding apprehension, on the part of the European governments generally, of the dangers to their own security to ensue from such a course of policy. Both, however, were soon undeceived. The severe laws enacted, in September 1835, against the liberty of the citizens and of the press, remained unrepealed; no serious attempt was made to modify the existing electoral law, which confined the right of suffrage within exceedingly narrow limits; and the reduction of the interest on the debt was rejected by the peers. Among the sums appropriated by the chambers, during their present session, was a considerable one for the construction of railroads, and another for that of steam-vessels. An appropriation, also deserving of mention, was one of 1,000,000 francs for the purpose of bringing the remains of Napoleon from St. Helena, to be interred with great pomp and ceremony in the capital of his former brought to consent to the augmentation of the army to the number of 639,000 men. In the mean time, two events occurred, of a nature to remind the king of the not improbable dangers, to himself and family, which might arise from an excited state of the public mind, and to induce him to resist the inclinations of his ministers to carry matters with the four other great powers to extremities. The first of the events referred to was the landing of prince Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, accompanied by a few followers, at Boulogne, August 6th, with the hope of producing a revolution in France in his favour, under the title of Napoleon II., which he assumed. No one joined him, and he was almost immediately arrested. The Peers condemned him to imprisonment for life in the castle of Ham. The other event referred to was a fifth attempt to take the life of the king. He was fired at with a musket loaded with six balls, while reviewing a body of the national guards on the 15th of October, but, as in the similar instances already mentioned, escaped all exist among the French people, the day of "Bonapartism" had passed away. And the arrival, towards the close of the year 1840, of Admiral Mackau from Buenos Ayres, with a treaty favourable to the interests of France, which he had extorted from that republic, was an occurrence also tending to increase the confidence of the new administration.—The project of fortifying the city of Paris had been resumed injury. The perpetrator of the act, a man named Darmès, on the other hand, was injured by the bursting of the gun, and afterwards suffered under the axe of the guillotine. The meeting of the chambers was appointed for the 28th day of October; and it was the plan of Thiers, that the king should then formally denounce the treaty of July preceding, and should ask of the legislature extraordinary means for further warlike preparations. This, how-by Thiers and his colleagues in the midst ever, Louis Philippe declined doing; upon of their preparations for a European war, which, Thiers and his colleagues sent in and it was persevered in by their succestheir resignations (October 21st). An ad- sors. Their plan for this purpose was journment of the meeting of the chambers presented to the chambers and approved till the 5th of November was, in conse- by the deputies, February 1st 1841, and quence, announced; and, in the mean time, by the peers on the 31st of the following a new ministry was organized, with Mar- month. The most important events which shal Soult as president of the Council. occurred in France, between the close of Guizot took charge of the department of the session of the chambers in June and Foreign Affairs; Duchâtel, of that of the their re-assembling on the 27th of DecemInterior; Martin "du Nord," of that of ber, were the tumults at Toulouse and Justice; Humann, of the Finances; Teste, other places in the South, in July, on ocof the department of Public Works; Ville- casion of a new assessment of the taxes, main, of that of Public Instruction; Cunin- and which were promptly quelled by a Gridaine, of that of Commerce; and Ad-military force; an unsuccessful attempt, miral Duperré, of that of the Marine. on the 13th of September, upon the lives Though Soult was the nominal head of this administration, Guizot was the most influential member. The great object which he and his colleagues proposed to themselves, and openly proclaimed, was the maintenance of the peace of Europe. To accomplish this, they found themselves unexpectedly supported, in the Chamber of Deputies, by a majority of as many as 60 votes. By the energetic action of the allied powers, the question at issue between the Porte and Mehemed Ali had been already settled on the terms dictated by them, and the specific cause for the proposed war thus removed. The more considerate, too, of such of the deputies as had at first been infected by the prevailing warlike spirit, would now, very naturally, under these altered circumstances, hesitate to plunge their country into a contest with the combined forces of Europe. A reduction of the military and naval establishments of the kingdom to their former condition was gradually effected; and the finances, which had been not a little deranged by the extraordinary expenditures lately incurred, were, as speedily as possible, restored to order. The depositing of the remains of the exemperor, in the dome of the Invalids, on the 15th of December, produced far less enthusiasm and excitement than had been anticipated, and served only to demonstrate most unequivocally that, whatever dissatisfaction with the present government might of three of the king's sons, for which the guilty party was subsequently condemned to be deported; and the promulgation of a royal ordinance, December 13th, for the diminution of the army by about 90,000 or 100,000 men. In the course of the winter of 1842, the opposition to the ministers exerted itself with considerable effect in the chambers, on a variety of questions connected with the foreign policy of the country; and particularly in relation to a treaty, signed at London, on the 20th of the preceding December, by the representatives of the great European powers, France included, allowing to each other a mutual right of searching the vessels sailing under their respective flags, on the coast of Africa, for the more effectual suppression of the slave trade. The ministerial majority in the Chamber of Deputies had been gradually diminishing. There was reason to fear that it would, before long, disappear altogether. Accordingly, Louis Philippe did not venture to ratify that treaty unconditionally; and this unexpected separation to a certain extent from the other parties to it, produced a temporary coldness, and even irritation, between France and England, which any additional unpropitious occurrence might easily have kindled into open hostilities. The minister of finance, Humann, died in April (1842), and was succeeded in office by Lacave-Laplagne; a change, however, which produced not the slightest alteration FRANCE-FRAYSSINOUS. n the general policy of the administration, or the management, in particular, of the financial department. Just as the deputies were engaged in the discussion of a law authorizing the construction, at the expense of the state, of 900 leagues of railroad (May 8th), a shocking accident occurred on the railroad between Paris and Versailles, which cost the lives of 200 persons, and, among others, those of Dumont d'Urville, the circumnavigator, and his family. This accident, nevertheless, did not prevent the proposed law from passing. Another disaster, which occurred in the course of the summer, produced an extraordinary sensation: this was the death of the duke of Orleans, the heir apparent of the king, by being thrown out of the carriage in which he was riding. The Chamber of Deputies had, in the mean time, been dissolved, and the elections had been favourable to the ministry, who could calculate with confidence on being supported, in their measures, by a majority of from 70 to 75 votes in the new chamber. One of the first questions presented to it for consideration was that relating to the regency of the kingdom, in the very probable event of Louis Philippe dying before his grandson, the young count of Paris (son of the deceased duke of Orleans) should come of age. It was decided, in conformity with former precedents and analogies in the history of France, that the regency should be entrusted to the individual next in the order of succession to the throne, having attained the age of 21 years. The education and wardship of the prince was assigned to his inother. This law was enacted by the deputies by a vote of 390 to 95; Thiers and his friends separating themselves, on the occasion, from Odillon Barrot and the more "radical" portion of the opposition, and voting for it; and some 30 members of the "extreme left," with the legitimists of the chamber, abstaining altogether from voting. Designated by the law to be the future regent of France, the duke of Nemours, who is personally unpopular, may, on this account, should he survive the present king of the French, it is far from improbable, contribute essentially to the overthrow of an order of things, which it has required of the latter so much patient perseverance, and skilful management, to sustain. During the last 3 or 4 years, the history of France has presented no events of more importance than the taking possession by her forces of the Marquesas and the Society Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and the exchange of visits between Louis Phi 295 lippe and Queen Victoria. No efforts of its adversaries have hitherto been availing to effect the overthrow of the Guizot ministry; which continues, and seems likely to continue, to pursue steadily its policy, on the one hand, of maintaining the peaceful relations of the country with foreign nations, and, on the other, of developing its internal resources by every practicable means. See Algiers, (Sup.) FRANCE (Isle of). See Mauritius, (Sup.) * FRANCIA* died in 1840. FRANCIS 1.* (Emperor of Austria) died in 1835, and was succeeded by his son, Ferdinand III. FRANKFORT (on the Maine). Population of this city in 1838, 54,822, and including that of the small portion of territory attached to it, 63,936. Among the objects most worthy of notice in Frankfort, may be mentioned the Senkenberg Museum of Natural History, and the Medical Institute, occupying an imposing building of the 14th century; the museum contains many rare specimens presented by the traveller Rüppell and other naturalists. There are also 5 hospitals; an orphan asylum; a lunatic asylum; a gymnasium, and other schools; an institution for the deaf and dumb; a public library with 180,000 volumes; a theatre; and a new cemetery near the city, containing several works by Thorwaldsen. And to these must be added (besides the various objects of art in the possession of wealthy individuals, the most remarkable of which being Dannecker's celebrated statue of Ariadne seated on a tiger), the monument erected by the king of Prussia, just without one of the gates, to the memory of the Hessians who fell on the spot in defending the city against the French. The city of Frankfort is now included in the German Customs' Union. It is garrisoned by Prussian and Austrian troops. FRANKFORT (on the Oder). This city has of late advanced very much in prosperity. In 1840, it had 23,378 inhabitants. There are three well-frequented fairs held here annually, in February, July, and November. Its institutions of education and charity are highly respectable; and being situated on the high road from Berlin to Silesia, and on a navigable river, communicating, by canals, with the Elbe and the Vistula, it has a considerable trade; though in commercial activity, it is far inferior to its namesake on the Maine. FRAYSSINOUS.* After the revolution of 1830, this prelate accompanied Charles X. and his family in their exile, and both |