Ble. In every sentence there is some leading or governing word, which, if possible, ought to be continued so from the beginning to the end of it. The following sentence is not constructed according to this rule: "After we came to anchor, they put me on shore, where I was saluted by all my friends, who received me with the greatest kindness." In this sentence, though the objects are sufficiently connected, yet, by shifting so frequently the place and the person, the vessel, the shore, we, they, I, and who, they appear in so disunited a view, that the mind is led to wander for the sense. The sentence is restored to its proper unity by constructing it thus: "Having come to anchor, I was put on shore, where I was saluted by all my friends, who received me with the greatest kindness."

2. Never crowd into one sentence things which have so little connexion, that they would bear to be divided into two or more sentences. The violation of this rule produces so unfavourable an effect, that it is safer to err rather by too many short sentences, than by one that is overloaded and confused.

3. Avoid all unnecessary parentheses.

CLEARNESS. Ambiguity, which is opposed to clearness, may arise from a bad choice, or a bad arrangement of words.

A leading rule in the arrangement of sentences, is, that those words or members most nearly related, should be placed in the sentence as near to each other as possible, so as thereby to make their mutual relation clearly appear. This rule ought to be observed,

1. In the position of adverbs. "By greatness," savs Mr. Addison, “I do not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of a whole view." The improper situation of the adverb only, in this sentence, renders it a limitation of the verb mean, whereas the author intended to have it qualify the phrase, a single object; thus, "By greatness, I do not mean the bulk of any single object only, but the largeness of a whole view."

2. In the position of phrases and members. "Are these designs which any man who is born a Briton, in any circumstances, in any situation, ought to be ashamed or afraid to avow ?" Corrected: "Are these designs which man who is born a Briton, ought to be ashamed or afraid, in any circumstan. ces, in any situation, to avow?"

any

3. In the position of pronouns. The reference of a pronoun to its noun, should always be so clear that we cannot possibly mistake it: otherwise the noun ought to be repeated. "It is folly to pretend to arm ourselves against the accidents of life, by heaping up treasures, which nothing can protect us against but the good providence of our Heavenly Father." Which, in this sentence, grammatically refers to treasures; and this would convert the whole period into nonsense. The sentence should have been thus constructed, "It is fully to pretend, by heaping up treasures, to arm ourselves against the accidents of life, against which nothing can protect us but the good providence of our Heavenly Father."

STRENGTH. By the strength of a sentence is meant such an arrangement of its several words and members, as exhibits the sense to the best advantage, and gives every word and member its due weight and force.

1. The first rule for promoting the strength of a sentence, is, to take from it all redundant words and members. Whatever can be easily supplied in the mind, should generally be omitted; thus, "Content with deserving a triumph, he refused the honour of it," is better than to say, "Being content with deserving a triumph," &c. "They returned back again to the same city from whence they came forth." If we expunge from this short sentence five words which are mere expletives, it will be much more neat and forcible thus, "They returned to the city whence they cane." But we should be

cautious of pruning so closely as to give a hardness and dryness to the style. Some leaves must be left to shelter and adorn the fruit.

2. Particular attention to the use of copulatives, relatives, and all the particles employed for transition and connexion, is required. In compositions of an. elevated character, the relative should generally be inserted. An injudicious repetition of and enfeebles style; but when enumerating objects which we wish to have appear as distinct from each other as possible, it may be repeat ed with peculiar advantage; thus, "Such a man may fall a victim to power; but truth, and reason, and liberty, would fall with him."

3. Dispose of the capital word or words in that part of the sentence in which they will make the most striking impression.

4. Cause the members of a sentence to go on rising in their importance one above another. In a sentence of two members, the longer should generally be the concluding one.

5. Avoid concluding a sentence with an adverb, a preposition, or any inconsid erable word, unless it be emphatical.

6. Where two things are compared or contrasted with each other, a resemblance in the language and construction should be observed.

FIGURES OF SPEECII.

Figures of Speech may be described as that language which is prompted either by the imagination, or by the passions. They generally imply some departure from simplicity of expression; and exhibit ideas in a manner more vivid and impressive, than could be done by plain language. Figures have been commonly divided into two great classes; Figures of Words, and Figures of Thought.

Figures of Words are called Tropes, and consist in a word's being employed to signify something that is different from its original meaning; so that by altering the word, we destroy the figure.

When we say of a person, that he has a fine taste in wines, the word taste is used in its common, literal sense; but when we say, he has a fine laste for painting, poetry, or musick, we use the word figuratively. "A good man enjoys comfort in the midst of adversity," is simple language; but when it 19 said, "To the upright there ariseth light in darkness," the same sentiment w expressed in a figurative style, light is put in the place of comfort, and darkness is used to suggest the idea of adversity.

The following are the most important figures:

1. A METAPHOR is founded on the resemblance which one object bears to another; or, it is a comparison in an abridged form.

When I say of some great minister, "That he upholds the state like a pillar which supports the weight of a whole edifice," I fairly make a compar ison; but when I say of such a minister, "That he is the pillar of state,” the word pillar becomes a metaphor. In the latter construction, the compart Bon between the Lunister and a pillar, is made in the mind; but it is es pressed without any of the words that denote comparison

Metaphors abound in all writings. In the scriptures they may be found in vast variety. Thus, our blessed Lord is called a vine, a lamb, a lion, &c.; and men, according to their different dispositions, are styled wolves, sheep. dogs, serpents, vipers, &c.

Washington Irving, in speaking of the degraded state of the American Aborigines who linger on the borders of the "white settlements," employs the following beautiful metaphor: "The proud pillar of their independence has been shaken down, and the whole moral fabrick lies in ruins."

2. AN ALLEGORY may be regarded as a metaphor continued ; or, it is several metaphors so connected together in sense, as frequently to form a kind of parable or fable. It differs from a single metaphor, in the same manner that a cluster on the vine differs from a single grape.

The following is a fine example of an allegory, taken from the 60th psalm; wherein the people of Israel are represented under the image of a vine "Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt: thou hast cast out the heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it; and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it; and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. She sent out her boughs into the sea, and her branches into the river."

3. A SIMILE or COMPARISON is when the resemblance between two objects, whether real or imaginary, is expressed in form.

Thus, we use a simile, when we say, "The actions of princes are like those great rivers, the course of which every one beholds, but their springs have been seen by few." "As the mountains are round about Jerusalem, so the Lord is round about his people." "The musick of Caryl was like the memory of joys that are past, pleasant and mournful to the soul." "Our Indians are like those wild plants which thrive best in the shade, but which wither when exposed to the influence of the sun."

"The Assyrian came down, like the wolf on the fold,
And his cohorts were gleaming with purple and gold;
And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea,
When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilec."

4. A METONYMY is where the cause is put for the effect, or the effect for the cause; the container for the thing contained; or the sign for the thing signified.

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When we say, "They read Milton," the cause is put for the effect, mean ing "Milton's works." Gray hairs should be respected;" here the effect is put for the cause; meaning by "gray hairs," old age, which produces gray hairs. In the phrase, "The kettle boils," the container is substituted for the thing contained. "He addressed the chair;" that is, the person in

the chair.

5. A SYNECDOCHE OR COMPREHENSION. When the whole is put for a part, or a part for the whole; a genus for a species, or a species for a genus; in general, when any thing less, or any thing more, is put for the precise object meant, the figure is called a Synecdoche.

Thus, "A fleet of twenty sail, instead of, ships." "The horse is a noble animal;" "The dog is a faithful creature:" here an individual is put for the species. We sometimes use the "head" for the person, and the "waves" for the sea. In like manner, an attribute may be put for a subject; as "Youth" for the young, the "deep" for the sea.

6. PERSONIFICATION OF PROSOPOPEIA is that figure by which we attribute life and action to inanimate objects. When we say, "the ground thirsts for rain," or, "the earth smiles with plenty ;" when we speak of " ambition's being restless," or, a disease's. being deceitful;" such expressions show the facility, with which the mind can accommodate the properties of living creatures to things that are inanimate.

The following are fine examples of this figure:

"Cheer'd with the grateful smell, old Ocean smiles;"

"The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad for them; and the desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose."

7. AN APOSTROPHE is an address to some person, either absent or dead, as if he were present and listening to us. The address is frequently made to a personified object; as, "Death is swallowed up in victory. O death! where is thy sting? O grave! where is thy victory?"

"Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, O maid of Inistore; bend thy fair head over the waves, thou fairer than the ghost of the hills, when it moves in a sun-beam at noon over the silence of Morven."

8. ANTITHESIS. Comparison is founded on the resemblance, antithesis, on the contrast or opposition, of two objects.

Example. "If you wish to enrich a person, study not to increase his stores, but to diminish his desires."

9. HYPERBOLE or EXAGGERATION consists in magnifying an object beyond its natural bounds. "As swift as the wind; as white as the snow; as slow as a snail;" and the like, are extravagant hyperboles.

"I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice; his spear, the blasted fir; his shield, the rising moon; he sat on the shore, like a cloud of mist on the hills."

10. VISION is produced, when, in relating something that is past, we use the present tense, and describe it as actually passing before our eyes.

11. INTERROGATION. The literal use of an interrogation, is to ask a question; but when men are strongly moved, whatever they would affirm or deny with great earnestness, they naturally put in the form of a question.

Thus Balaam expressed himself to Balak: "The Lord is not man, that he should lie, nor the son of man, that he should repent. Hath he said it? and shall he not do it? Hath he spoken it? and shall he not make it good?" "Hast thou an arm like God? or canst thou thunder with a voice like him ?"

12. EXCLAMATIONS are the effect of strong emotions, such as surprise, admiration, joy, grief, and the like.

"O that I had in the wilderness a lodging place of way-faring men!" "O that I had wings like a dove! for then would I fly away, and be at rest!"

13. IRONY is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary to our thoughts; not with a view to deceive, but to add force to our remarks. We can reprove one for his negligence, by say

ing, "You have taken great care, indeed."

The prophet Elijah adopted this figure, when he challenged the priests of Baal to prove the truth of their deity. "He mocked them, and said, Cry aloud for he is a god: either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is on a journey, or, peradventure, he sleepeth, and must be waked."

14. AMPLIFICATION OF CLIMAX Consists in heightening all the circumstances of an object or action, which we desire to place in a strong light.

Cicero gives a lively instance of this figure, when he says, "It is a crime to put a Roman citizen in bonds: it is the height of guilt to scourge him; little less than parricide to put him to death: what name, then, shall I give to the act of crucifying him?”

KEY.

Corrections of the False Syntax arranged under the Rules and Notes.

RULE 4. Frequent commission of sin hardens men in it. Great pains have been taken, &c.--is seldom found. The sincere are, &c.-is happy. What avail, &c.-Disappointments sink—the renewal of hope gives, &c.—is without limit. has been conferred upon us.-Thou canst not heal--but thou mayst do, &c.--consists the happiness, &c.-Who touchedst, or didst touch Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire.

Note 1. And wilt thou never be to Heaven resigned ?—And who had great abilities, &c.

Note 2. Are peace and honour.was controversy.

RULE 7. Them that you visited.-him that was mentioned.-he who preached repentance, &c.-they who died.-he who succeeded.

RULE 8. Time and tide wait, &c.-remove mountains.—are both uncertain.-dwell with, &c.-affect the mind, &c.-What signify the counsel and care, &c.—are now perished.-Why are whiteness and coldness, &c.-bind them continually, &c.-render their possessor, &c.-There are errour and discrepance-which show, &c.

RULE 9. Is the same in idea. is in the porphyry.-is remarkable, &c.— which moves merely as it is moved.-affects us, &c.-Man's happiness or misery is, in a great measure &c.--for it may be, &c.—was blameworthy. RULE 10. The nation is powerful.-The fleet was seen, &c.—The church has, &c.-is, or ought to be, the object, &c.—it is feeble.

RULE 11. My people do &c.-The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure as their, &c. were divided in their sentiments, and they have referred, &c.—The people rejoice-give them sorrow.

RULE 12. Homer's works are &c.-Asa's heart. James Hart's book. Note 1. It was the men, women, and children's lot, &c. or, It was the lot of the men, women, and children.-Peter, John, and Andrew's, &c.

Note 2. This is Campbell the poet's production; or, The production of Campbell, &c.-The silk was purchased at Brown's the mercer and haberdasher.

Note 4. The pupil's composing, &c.-rule's being observed.-of the presi dent's neglecting to lay it before the council.