ry. The oldest carriages used by the ladies in England were called whirlicotes. The mother of king Richard II, who accompanied him in his flight (1360), rode in a carriage of this sort. But coaches, properly so called, were first introduced into England from Germany or France, in 1580, in the reign of queen Elizabeth, and the first seen in public belonged to Henry, earl of Arundel. In 1601, the year before the queen's death, an act was passed to prevent men from riding in coaches, as being effeminate; but they were in common use, in London, about the year 1605. Twenty years afterwards, hackney-coaches were introduced. They were prohibited in 1635, and, in 1637, only 50 hackney-coachmen were licensed. The number of coaches was increased by degrees, and, in 1770, as many as 1000 were licensed. The duty on coaches in England in 1778, the number then kept being 23,000, amounted to £117,000. The total duty on coaches in England, in 1785, was £154,988; in Scotland, only £9000. The French invented the post-chaise, the use of which was brought into England by Tull, the well-known writer on husbandry. In Switzerland, coaches were a rarity as late as 1650.-Philadelphia (q. v.) surpasses all other places in America in the manufacture of coaches. The manufacture of elegant coaches is a proof of much wealth and mechanical skill in a place; many different artists being employed in their construction, who become skilful only when the demand for their work is considerable. A very large sort of coaches, called omnibus, has lately come into use in Paris, and still later in London. They serve as means of communication between different parts of the city, and contain a large number of passengers, with quantities of newspapers, furniture, &c. The fare at Paris is very cheap. Quite recently, a stage-coach began to run from Paris to Orleans, containing 60 passengers.

COAHUILA Y TEXAS; a state or province of Mexico, bounded E. by Tamaulipas, S. by New Leon, S. W. by Durango, W. by Chihuahua. Its northern boundary and extent are not well defined. It is watered by the Rio del Norte and its branches. The chief towns are Montelovez and Saltillo.

burn with a bright flame; those in which the carbon predominates burn less vividly. Numerous varieties of coal exist, deriving distinctions partly from their state of aggregation, but principally from the proportions of their bitumen and carbon. Excepting the anthracite, they may be treated of under the two divisions of black coals and brown coals.-The color of brown coal, as its name imports, is brown: it possesses a ligneous structure, or consists of earthy particles. The color of black coal is black, not inclining to brown, and it does not possess the structure of wood.-The varieties of brown coal are the following:bituminous wood, which presents a ligneous texture, and very seldom any thing like conchoidal fracture, and is without lustre ; earthy coal, consisting of loose, friable particles; moor coal, distinguished by the want of ligneous structure, by the property of bursting and splitting into angular fragments, when removed from its original repository, and the low degree of lustre upon its imperfect conchoidal fracture; common brown coal, which, though it still shows traces of ligneous texture, is of a more firm consistency than the rest of the varieties, and possesses higher degrees of lustre upon its more perfect conchoidal fracture. Some varieties of black coal immediately join those of brown coal. They are, pitch coal, of a velvet-black color, generally inclining to brown, strong lustre, and presenting, in every direction, a large and perfect conchoidal fracture; slate coal, possessing a more or less coarse, slaty structure, which, however, seems to be rather a kind of lamellar composition than real fracture; foliated coal, resembling it, only the lamina are thinner; and coarse coal in like manner, only the component particles are smaller, and approach to a granular appearance; cannel coal, without visible composition, and having a flat, conchoidal fracture in every direction, with but little lustre, by which it is distinguished from pitch coal. All these kinds are joined by numerous transitions, so that it often becomes doubtful to which of them we should ascribe certain specimens, though they undoubtedly are members of this species. As the preceding varieties of coal consist of variable proportions of bitumen and carbon, they, of course, must vary in their inflammability. Several varieties become soft, and others coke, when kindled, or, in other words, allow of the separation of the bituminous from the carbonaceous part. We perceive this separation in its combustion in a common fire; the coal, when kindled, swelling and soft

ening, exhaling a kind of bitumen, and burning with smoke and light; while, after a certain period, these appearances cease, and it burns only with a red light. The separation is effected more completely by the application of heat in close vessels: the bitumen is melted out, and there is disengaged ammonia, partly in the state of carbonate with empyreumatic oil, and the coal gas (a variety of carbureted hydrogen), often mixed with carbonic acid and sulphureted hydrogen, the carbonaceous matter being, in a great measure, left, forming coke.-The decomposition of coal is carried on, on a large scale, with a view to collect the products; the gas being used to afford an artificial light, which is clear, steady, easily regulated, and economical; the bituminous matter, or mineral tar, being applied to the uses for which vegetable tar and pitch are employed, and the coked coal being used in the smelting of metallic ores, and for various other purposes, where an elevated and steady temperature is needed.-Coal, excluding anthracite, has been supposed to be of vegetable origin. There is a remarkable graduation from bituminated wood to perfect coal. In some varieties, the structure, and even the remains, of plants are apparent, and its chemical composition agrees with that of vegetable matter. It is difficult to determine, however, in what manner it has been formed, or by what operations the vegetable matter, from which it has originated, has been so far modified, as to have assumed the properties under which it exists. And there are many geologists who regard it, in common with anthracite, as an original mineral deposit.-The varieties called slate coal, foliated coal, coarse coal, cannel coal, and pitch coal, occur chiefly in the coal formation; some varieties of pitch coal, also the moor coal, bituminous wood, and common brown coal, are met with in the formations above the chalk; the earthy coal, and some varieties of bituminous wood and common brown coal, are often included in diluvial and alluvial detritus. The coal seams alternate with beds of slaty clay and common clay, sandstone, limestone, sand, &c. They are often associated with vegetable organic remains, in slaty clay; sometimes, also, with shells, and having iron pyrites intermixed with them. Bituminous coal is so universally distributed, that it is unnecessary to attempt the enumeration of its localities. It abounds, in the U. States, in Pennsylvania, Virginia, Ohio, and the Western States generally.

COALITION, in chemistry; the reunion or combination of parts which had before

been separated. In the beginning of the French revolution, the French authors used this expression, by way of contempt, to denote the confederation of several powers against France; the word alliance appearing to them, perhaps, too noble for the object. From that time, the word has been received into diplomatic language; but there is generally some idea of reproach connected with the use of it. The diplomatists of the continent of Europe have made this distinction between alliance and coalition, that the former is more general, the latter is directed against a particular enemy, for a distinct object. The first coalition against France was concluded between Austria and Prussia for the preservation of the constitution of the German empire, and for checking the progress of the French revolution (7th of Feb., 1792). The separate peace with Prussia, concluded at Bâle (5th of April, 1795), and the line of demarcation for the north of Germany, were the first steps to the dissolution of the German empire. The next coalition is that of 1793. Germany declared war (22d of March), and was afterwards joined by Portugal, Naples, Tuscany, and the pope. In addition to this, a treaty of alliance was concluded at London, between Great Britain and Russia. The third is the triple alliance entered into at St. Petersburg, by Russia, Austria and Great Britain (28th of Sept., 1795), at a time when several princes of the empire withdrew their troops. This coalition was dissolved by the peace of Campo-Formio, between Austria and France, in which, at the same time, a general congress for the conclusion of peace with the whole empire was appointed at Rastadt (9th of Dec., 1797, to April, 1799). The negotiations which took place here were declared null by Austria; for, during them, a new coalition (the fourth) had been formed between Russia, the Porte (23d of Dec., 1798) and England. Austria and Naples, also, were induced to join it. Separate treaties of peace dissolved it again, viz. the peace of Lunéville with Austria and Germany (9th of Feb., 1801), that of Florence with Naples (28th of March, 1801), that of Paris with Russia (8th of Oct., 1801), of Paris with the Porte (9th of Oct.), and of Amiens with Great Britain (25th of March, 1802). Of all these states, Great Britain first declared war against France (18th of April, 1803), and, in April, 1805, new negotiations were begun between England, Russia, Austria and Prussia, for another coalition (the fifth) against France. At Petersburg, the two first powers contracted to

effect a general confederation of the European states against France, for the restoration of peace and the political balance, and for the foundation of a federative system adapted to secure the rights of nations. All the powers were to be invited to join this confederacy. In the same year, it was partly dissolved by the peace of Presburg with Austria (26th of Dec., 1805), and completely, by the peace of Paris with Russia (20th of July, 1806). Prussia, which till then had not taken an active part, thought herself strong enough to encounter France single-handed. The accession of England and Russia (besides the previous junction of Saxony, and, probably, of other temporizing cabinets) produced the sixth coalition. The peace of Tilsit (7th and 9th of July, 1807), put an end to this union; and the peace at Vienna (14th of Oct., 1809) terminated the Austrian coalition with England (the seventh). Finally, we may mention under this head the last great alliance against France. It consisted first of Russia and England, but was increased in succession by the addition of Spain and Portugal, Sweden, Prussia, Austria, the German princes with few exceptions, Naples, and, at last, Denmark. It ended with the peace of Paris (31st of May, 1814). The return of Napoleon, however, in 1815, revived it. From this sprung the "holy alliance" of Russia, Austria and Prussia, which was joined by the king of France, at Aix-la-Chapelle (q. v.), fn 1818. In England and the U. States of North America, the word coalition is used to denote the union of several parties or their leaders against another party; but it always expresses something odious. Thus, for instance, the party of Pitt denounced the coalition of Fox and North.

COAT OF ARMS; 1. the surcoat worn by a knight; 2. the ensigns armorial of a family; so called, because originally worn on some part of the armor. Their origin is to be referred to the age of chivalry, when they were assumed as emblematic of the adventures, love, hopes, &c., of the knight, and were useful for distinguishing individuals, whom it was difficult to recognise, covered, as they were, from head to foot, with armor. This, perhaps, may even have been the origin of the usage. As every thing else became hereditary in Europe, estates, dignities, titles, privileges, so the favorite emblem of the knight became the adopted badge of the family, the figures or characters employed in them began to receive names, and the language and science of heraldry (q. v.) was formed.

The right to bear arms thus became a distinctive mark of gentle birth. In France, the feudal privileges and nobility were abolished by the revolution. Under Napoleon, the imperial noblesse wore a certain number of feathers, indicative of their rank; a simple chevalier, 1; a baron, 3; a duke, 7.

COBALT occurs alloyed with arsenic, nickel and other metals, and mineralized by oxygen and by arsenic acid. It is obtained, after the ore has been roasted and calcined, in the state of an oxide, impure from the presence of other metallic oxides. When this oxide is obtained in a state of purity, and reduced to the metallic state, we are presented with a metal of a white color, inclining to gray, and, if tarnished, to red, with a moderate lustre. Its fracture is compact; it is hard, brittle, and of a specific gravity of 7.8. Like nickel, it is sensibly magnetic, and is susceptible of being rendered permanently so. It undergoes little change in the air, but absorbs oxygen when heated in open vessels. It is attacked with difficulty by sulphuric or muriatic acid, but is readily oxidized by means of nitric acid. There are but two oxides of cobalt known. The protoxide is of an ash-gray color, and is the basis of the salts of cobalt, most of which are of a pink hue. When heated to redness in open vessels, it absorbs oxygen, and is converted into the peroxide. It may be prepared by decomposing the carbonate of cobalt by heat, in a vessel from which the atmospheric air is excluded. It is easily known by its giving a blue tint to borax when melted with it, and is employed in the arts, in the form of smalt, for communicating a similar color to glass, to earthen ware, and to porcelain. Smalt, or powder blue, is made by melting three parts of fine white sand, or calcined flints, with two of purified pearl-ash and one of cobalt ore, previously calcined, and lading it out of the pots into a vessel of cold water; after which, the dark-blue glass, or zaffre, is ground, washed over, and distributed into different shades of colors, which shades are occasioned by the different qualities of the ore, and the coarser and finer grinding of the powder. Smalt, besides being used to stain glass and pottery, is often substituted, in painting, for ultra-marine blue, and is likewise employed to give to paper and linen a bluish tinge. The muriate of cobalt is celebrated as a sympathetic ink. When diluted with water, so as to form a pale pink solution, and then employed as ink, the letters which are invisible in the cold, become blue, if gently heated. It is

prepared by dissolving one part of zaffre in two of diluted nitric acid, with the aid of heat, adding to it of muriate of soda one part, and diluting with 20 parts of water. The peroxide of cobalt is of a black color, and is easily formed in the way already mentioned. It does not unite with acids; and, when digested in muriatic acid, the proto-muriate of cobalt is generated with the disengagement of chlorine. When strongly heated in close vessels, it gives off oxygen, and is converted into the protoxide.-Ores of cobalt: 1. White cobalt ore, or bright white cobalt ore, consists, principally, of cobalt and arsenic. Its color is tinwhite, liable to tarnish, with little lustre. It occurs massive and crystallized, in cubes and in octohedrons. It is hard and brittle. Specific gravity, 7.3 to 7.7. Before the blowpipe, it melts, and gives an arsenical smoke and odor. It forms a metallic globule, and gives to borax a blue color. It occurs chiefly in primitive rocks, and is frequently accompanied with bismuth. It is found most abundantly in Germany, Sweden and Norway, and also occurs in several other European countries. 2. Gray cobalt ore is an alloy of cobalt with arsenic and iron, and is sometimes accompanied with small portions of nickel and bismuth. Its color is lightgray; liable to tarnish. It occurs massive or disseminated, and is never crystallized. It has been found in the U. States, at Chatham, Conn., but has not, hitherto, been wrought advantageously. It also occurs in Bohemia, Saxony and France. 3. Red cobalt ore is a hydrated arseniate of cobalt, of a beautiful peach-blossom red color. It occurs massive, disseminated, and in minute crystals. It accompanies other ores of cobalt.

COBBETT, William, a notorious political writer in England and America, was born in 1766, in the county of Surry, England, the son of a farmer, from whom he received the rudiments of his educationreading, writing and arithmetic. In 1783, he left the plough for London, where he became "an understrapping quill-driver," as he calls himself, to an attorney in Gray's Inn. This employment not suiting his restless disposition, he enlisted as a common soldier in 1784, and remained in England a year, spending his leisure hours in reading and study, particularly in the study of grammar. He wrote out the whole of Lowth's grammar two or three times, got it by heart, and repeated it every morning and evening. He then sailed to join his regiment in America, and remained there, in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick,

till 1791, when the regiment was relieved and sent home. Serjeant-major Cobbett here left the service, and terminated his military career. In 1792, he first came to the U. States, after a short visit to France. He began his career in Philadelphia, as a writer of political pamphlets, under the well known name of Peter Porcupine; soon after engaged in the business of a bookseller in that city, and published, a the same time, a daily newspaper, called the Porcupine. The French interest, which then prevailed in the U. States, he opposed with great violence, mingling the coarsest personal abuse with the severest political invective. Having been convicted for a libel on doctor Rush, and condemned in $5000 damages, he left the country, and returned to England in 1800. Here he published the Works of Peter Porcupine, containing a faithful Picture of the U. States, &c. (London, 1801, 12 vols., 8vo.), consisting of selections from the Porcupine, with remarks illustrating them, and of his other personal and political writings, previously published in America. This work was dedicated "to a declared enemy of republicans and levellers." In it, doctor Priestley (Observations on Priestley's Emigration), doctor Rush (in the Rush-Light), doctor Franklin, &c., were unsparingly abused. He soon after established the Weekly Political Register (commenced in 1802), which has been conducted with considerable talent, but great bitterness. In 1810, he was convicted of a libel with intention to excite a mutiny, and condemned to confinement in Newgate, and to pay a fine of £1000. Although the fine was paid by a subscription among his friends, he addressed a letter to the king in 1828, praying his majesty to restore him the sum. In 1815, he became the champion of Napoleon, whom he had previously assailed with the utmost vehemence. 1817, he again visited America; but we soon after find him in England, where, in 1819, he published his Year's Residence in America. He was never naturalized in the U. States, objecting to the oath required, abjuring all allegiance to any other power. He now connected himself with the party called radicals; and we often find him haranguing at public meetings with great success; but, a convicted libeller on both sides of the Atlantic, twice cast out by his own country, and as often rejected by America, alternately praising, abusing, calumniating and panegyrizing the same party, his inconsistency and selfcontradictions have much diminished his influence, notwithstanding his great ad

In

dress and his popular eloquence. Besides his works already mentioned, the principal are Parliamentary Debates, from 1803-10-11, 20 vols. 8vo.; Maître Anglais, or English Grammar for the Use of Frenchmen, which has obtained great reputation in France, where it has passed through many editions (the examples, illustrating the rules, are severe attacks on royalty); his Life, written by himself (1816); Treatise on Cobbett's Corn* (1828); (the title-page of this work is printed on paper made of the husks of Indian corn). In the latter part of 1829, he was engaged in delivering lectures on the causes of the existing distress in England, and the best means of relieving it.

COBENTZL, Louis, count of, son of count John of Cobentzl, a diplomatist in the Austrian service, was born at Brussels in 1753. He entered first into the military service of Austria, was appointed minister at Copenhagen, after the revolution of 1771, and at the court of Frederic the Great, from 1775 to 1778. In 1779, he was sent on an embassy to Catharine II of Russia, whose favor he secured by his gallantry, and by composing and taking part himself in comedies at her private theatre. In 1795, he concluded a grand triple alliance between Russia, England and Austria, against the French republic. Being recalled to Vienna the following year, he was again employed in political negotiations. He was one of the plenipotentiaries who signed the treaty of CampoFormio, between Austria and France, in October, 1797, and was also sent to the congress of Rastadt. In the following year, he held a conference, at Seltz, with Francis de Neufchateau, a member of the executive directory, respecting the insult offered to Bernadotte at Vienna. He then returned to Petersburg, whence he was summoned, and sent to Lunéville; and there concluded a treaty of peace with France, in February, 1801. A few months after, he was appointed minister of state and vice-chancellor for the department of foreign affairs at Vienna. In 1805, he followed the Austrian court to Olmütz, and died at Vienna in 1809.

COBENTZL, John Philip, count de, cousin of the last mentioned individual, was born in Carniola in 1741. He was made a counsellor of finance in 1762, and afterwards privy counsellor at Brussels. In 1779, he was employed as a diplomatist at the con

* By this term this modest gentleman designates Indian corn or maize, the cultivation of which he has been endeavoring to introduce among his

countrymen.

clusion of the peace of Teschen. In 1790, he was sent to Brabant to treat with the insurgent Netherlanders; but the states refused to receive him, on which he retired to Luxembourg, where he published a declaration, by which the emperor of Germany revoked all those edicts which had caused the insurrection, and reëstablished the previous state of affairs. His failure on this occasion probably prevented him from being again employed till 1801, when he was sent ambassador to Paris, through the credit of his cousin, and remained there till 1805. He died Aug. 30, 1810. He was the last of the family of Cobentzl.

COBI (in Chinese, Shamo); a great desert in the central part of Asia, extending from the sources of the Indus and Ganges, beyond those of the Amour, from 23 to 24 degrees of longitude in length, and varying from 3 to 10 degrees of latitude in breadth. But little is known of this immense region, of about 847,000 square miles in extent. Its great elevation, and the salt with which it is impregnated, render it very cold. The frightful uniformity of vast fields of sand and gravel is hardly broken by the small rivers, lined with narrow tracts of pasture, by the salt lakes, and a few fertile oases interspersed here and there, like islands in the ocean. A few little hills rise out of the general level, which extends all around the traveller, as far as the eye can reach. The small Mongolian horses wander about in large droves, and the wild djiggetai snatches a hasty meal from the pastures. The camel is commonly used by the Mongols to transport burdens.

COBLENTZ (anciently Confluentia, from its situation at the confluence of the Rhine and Moselle), formerly the residence of the elector of Treves, then chief place of the French department of the Rhine and Moselle, now the capital of the Prussian circle of government (Regierungsbezirk) of Coblentz (belonging to the province of the Lower Rhine), containing 1928 square miles, with 337,470 inhabitants, is situated on a most charming spot. Opposite Coblentz is Thalehrenbreitstein, a small place on the right bank of the majestic river, at the foot of the rock, on which the Prussians rebuilt the fortifications of Ehrenbreitstein, and rendered it one of the most remarkable productions of military architecture. Over the Moselle is a bridge of 536 paces, resting upon 14 arches of stone. From this bridge there is one of the finest views on the Rhine. Coblentz (1050 houses and 14,900 inhabitants) consists